LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Chap..2...^ Copyright No, 



ShellL 



mA 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 



Grotenfelt's Modern Dairy Practice. American Edition 
by F. W. WoLL. Second Edition. New York, 1897. 
285 pp. $2.00. 

A Book on Silage. Second Edition. Chicago, 111., 1899. 
190 pp. Paper, 50 cents ; cloth, $1.00. 

Jointly with Pref. E. H. Farrington. 

Testing Milk and its Products. Sixth Edition. Madi- 
gon, Wis,, J899. 356 pp. $i.0Q. 



A 

HANDBOOK 



FOR 



FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN 



F; W. WOLL, 

Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 
Chemist to the Wisconsin Experiment Station. 

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF 

WELL-KNOWN SPECIALISTS, 



W&il^ Sllustrattons. 



SECOND EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED. 
FIRST THOUSAND. 



NEW YORK : 

JOHN WILEY & SONS. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 

1900. 



TWO COPIES RECElVEj 

Library cf Gcngregfe^ 
OffCcti (J f i^^ 

JAN 17 1900 

Register of Ccpj rlj^fi^g, 



51431 



Copyright, 1897 and 1900, 

BY 

F. W. WOLL. 



SECOND COPY. 



o\ ' 5- o -^ 



^^^^.oA. 



T^ 3cx\x,B" A^ 00, 



ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER. NEW YORK. 






PREFACE, 



t ^ The effort of the author has been to make this small 
^ volume a compendium of useful information on farm and 
dairy topics. Brief discussions on subjects of importance 
and interest to farm.ers and dairymen have been intro- 
duced, and useful facts, tables, formulas, receipts, agricul- 
tural statistics, etc., are given to such an extent as the plan 
of the work permitted. Valuable data scattered through- 
out our agricultural literature, in the publications of our 
experiment stations and the scientific divisions of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, as well as in 
other public documents, and in farm papers and standard 
works, have been gathered in this Handbook and arranged 
in such a manner as to make them easily accessible and 
convenient for reference purposes. 

The present volume is founded on the Dairy and Agri- 
cultural Calendars previously published by the author. 
Much new material, both original and compiled, has, how- 
ever, been included, and special articles, tables, statistics, 
etc., have been verified and brought up to date, making 
the book, as it is hoped, of considerable value, and secur- 
ing for it as favorable a reception as was accorded its pre- 
decessors. 

The author takes this opportunity of thanking the follow- 
ing specialists who have so materially increased the useful- 



IV PREFACE. 

ness of the book by comprehensive, concise contributions on 
subjects in their particular lines of study : Professors W. 
H. Caldwell, J. A. Craig, John W. Decker, L. H. Dewey, F. 
H. Farrington, B. E. Fernow, E. S. Goff, A. W. Richter, 
H. L. Russell, Thos. Shaw, Wm. P. Wheeler; and Messrs. 
John Boyd, W. G. Clark, M.D.C., N. S. Fish, J. D. Fred- 
eriksen, H. B. Gurler, S. Hoxie, J. Noer, M.D., J. H. 
Pickrell, H. B. Richards, L. P. Sisson, J. McLain Smith, 
and C. M. Winslow. 

While all possible care in the preparation of the manu- 
script and in the proof-reading of the book has been taken, 
it cannot be expected that errors have been entirely avoided, 
and readers discovering any such will confer a favor by 
communicating them to the author. 

F. W. WOLL. 

Madison, Wis., December, 1899. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I. AGRICULTURE. 

I. FEEDING STUFFS. 

PAGE 

Composition of Feeding Stuffs i 

Table Showing Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 3 

Average American Digestion Coefficients of Feeding Stuffs 6 

Classification of Cattle Foods 9 

Classification of Concentrated Feed Stuffs 9 

Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 10 

Rations for Dairy Cows 12,14 

Calculation of Components of Feed Rations 12 

Weight of Concentrated Feeding Stuffs 16 

Food Requirements of Farm Animals 16 

Comparative Value of Cattle Foods 16, 17 

Prices of Cereals per Bushel and per Ton 18 

Valuation of Feeding Stuffs 18 

II. FARM ANIMALS. 

Characteristics of Breeds of Live Stock. Prof. John A. Craig, of 

Iowa Agricultural College 19 

Determination of the Age of Farm Animals by their Teeth 26 

Body Temperature of Farm Animals 28 

Duration and Frequency of I'leat in Farm Animals 28 

Gestation Calendar 29 

Feeding and General Care of Poultry. Prof. Wm. P. Wheeler, of 

N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station 31 

Synopsis of Breeds of Poultry 36 

Heredity. Prof. Thos. Shaw, of Minnesota Experiment Station. 36 

III. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 

Common Diseases of Farm Animals. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., 

Marinette, Wis 41 

Veterinary Remedies and Doses. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., Mar- 
inette, Wis 51 



VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGfi 

Suppression of Hog Cholera and Swine Plague 55 

Remedies for the Horn-fly 57 

List of Disinfectants 58 

Rules for the Disinfection of Stables 59 

Regulations for the Government of Dairies and Dairy Farms in 

the District of Columbia 59 

IV. FIELD CROPS. 

Quantity of Seed Required per Acre 62 

Seed Mixtures for Hay and Permanent Pastures 63 

The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, in 

Pounds per acre 66 

Soiling Crops Adapted to Northern New England States 67 

Time of Planting and Feeding Soiling Crops 68 

Replacing Winter-killed Clover 68 

Capacity of Cylindrical Silos 69 

Area of Feeding Surface in Silos Required for Different Herds., 70 

Number of Plants or Hills for an Acre of Ground 70,71 

Yield of a Good Crop of Farm Products per Acre 71 

V. HORTICULTURE. 

Usual Distances for Planting Vegetables "jz 

Quantity of Seed of Vegetables Required to Sow an Acre 73 

Distances Apart for Fruit-trees, Time Required to Bear Fruit, 

and Longevity 74 

Average Yields per Acre of Various Crops 75 

Relation of Specific Gravity, Dry Matter, and Starch Content of 

Potatoes 76 

Specific Gravity, Sugar Content, and Boiling-point of Maple 

Sugar 77 

Weight of Sugar Obtained from 100 lbs. of Maple Syrup 78 

Temperatures to which Perishable Goods may be Subjected 

without Inj ury 79 

Temperatures Injurious to Plants 80 

Best Temperatures for Preserving Horticultural Products 8i 

The Preservation of Soft Fruits for Exhibition Purposes 81 

VI. SEEDS. 
Seed-testing for the Farmer, by the late Gilbert H. Hicks, of 

U. S. Department of Agriculture 84 

Standards of Purity of Seeds 86 

Table of Germination Standards 89 

Number, Weight, Cost of Grass Seeds, and Amount to Sow per 

Acre 89 

Notes on the Adaptability and Uses of Grasses and Clovers 91 

Vitality of Seeds, if Properly Kept 93 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. VU 

VII. WEEDS. 

PAGE 

Table of Noxious Weeds. L. H. Dewey, Assistant Botanist 
U. S. Department of Agriculture 94 

VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 

Treatments for Injurious Insects and Fungous Diseases of 
Plants. Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 99 

Spraying Calendar loi 

A Cheap Orchard-spraying Outfit 104 

Prevention of Oats-smut 105 

The Formalin Treatment for the- Prevention qf the Smuts of 

Cereal Grains and of Potato Scab 107 

Fighting the Chinch-bug by Means of Kerosene Emulsion loS 

IX. FORESTRY. 

Forestry for Farmers. Dr. B. E. Fernow, Director N. Y. State 

College of Forestry 109 

Number of Trees on an Acre 113 

Fuel Value and Specific Gravity of some of the More Important 

Woods of the United States 114 

Distance Table for Tree-planting 116 

States and Territories Observing Arbor Day, with Dates 117 

Forest-fire Laws in the United States 118 

X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 

Manures and Fertilizers 122 

Approximate Losses of Fertilizing Materials in Different Sys- 
tems of Farming 123 

Average Chemical Composition of American Soils 124 

Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 125 

Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding Stuffs and Farm Products.. 126 

Amount of Soil Ingredients Withdrawn by Various Crops 128 

Amount of Fertilizing Materials Contained in Different Crops 

Grown on One Acre 129 

Farmyard Manure Required to Replace Ingredients Abstracted 

from the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops 130 

Amount and Quality of Manure Produced by Stock 130 

Composition, Amount, and Value of Manure Produced by Dif- 
ferent Kinds of Farm Animals 131 

Quantities of Nitrogen and Ash Constituents Voided by Animals 131 

Percentage Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials 132 

Exhaustion of Fertilizers 134 

Equivalent Quantities of Fertilizing Materials 135 

Valuation of Manures and Fertilizers 136 



Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and 

Chemicals, 1899 i37 

Conversion Table for Calculating Fertilizing Ingredients 138 

XL AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 

Drainage: Reasons for Tile-draining Land 139 

Number of Rods and of Tiles per Acre, with Drains at Various 

Distances Apart 140 

Size of Tiles Required for Draining under Average Conditions 140 

Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain 141 

Rule for Obtaining Size of Main Pipes 141 

Number of 12-inch Pipes Required per Acre at Different Dis- 
tances between the Drains 141 

Number of Acres which a Tile of a Given Diameter and per 

Cent Grade will Drain when LTsed as an Outlet 142 

Rise of the Slope for 100 Feet 143 

Quantity of Earth Removed per Rod of Drains of Various 

Dimensions 1 43 

Rainfall 144 

Windmills: Table Showing the Force and Velocity of Wind 145 

Number of Square Feet and Acres Irrigated by Windmills of 

Different Sizes 145 

Table Showing Capacity of Windmills 146 

Table Showing Economy of Windmills 147 

Nominal Horse-power Required for the Discharge of Given 

Quantities of Water wath Lifts of 10 and 20 ft 148 

Irrigation : Definition of Technical Terms 148 

Carrying Capacity of Pipes 151 

Flow of Water through Straight Pipes 151 

Power Required to Raise Water from Deep Wells by Pumping 152 
Approximate Cost of Different Kinds of Pipe used for Irriga- 
tion 152 

Average Cost per Mile of Constructing Irrigating Canals and 

Ditches 152 

Capacity of Windmills and Pumps 153 

The California Weir Table 154 

Capacity of Cisterns and Tanks 154 

Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, per Foot in Depth 155 

Roads: Road-making 155 

Importance of Good Roads 157 

Tractive Force Required for Carriages 157 

Fraction of the Weight of a Vehicle and Load Required to 

Move Same on a Level Road 158 

Tractive Power of Horses at Different Speeds 158 

Effect of Inclination on Tractive Force 159 

Effects of Surface on Tractive Force 160 



TABLE OP COKTEKTS. ix 



PAGE 

Cost of Hauling Farm Produce in the United States i6o 

Labor Done by one Horse on Canals, Railroads, and Turnpikes i6i 

Labor Done by Team in Plowing i6i 

The Effect of Wide Wagon Tires 162 

Average Quantity of Stone Required to Keep Roads in Repair. 162 

Interior Dimensions of Farm Buildings 163 

Recipe for Whitewash 163 

Table of Cut Nails 164 

XII. HUMAN FOODS. 

Composition of Human Food Materials 165,170 

Percentages of Nutrients, Water, and Refuse in Food Materials. 169 

Pecuniary Economy of Food 172 

Amounts of Nutrients Furnished for 25 Cents in Food Materials 173 

Dietary Standards 175 

Summary of American Dietary Studies 175 

Diagram cf a Good Steer's Carcass, as Cut Up and Priced in 

Eastern Markets 176 

Diagrams cf Cuts of Veal, Mutton, and Pork 177 

Live Weight and Dressed Weight of Steers of Different Breeds 

end Ages 178 

Proportion of Beef to the Live Weight of Cattle 17S 

Comparative Results Obtained with Fattening Animals 179 

Live Weight and Gains Made by Swine 179 

Proportion of the Various Parts of Cattle, Sheep, and Swine 180 



PART II. DAIRYING. 
I. DAIRY COWS. 

On the Origin and Characteristics of the Different Breeds of 

Dairy Cattle 183 

I. Jersey Cattle. By the Author 183 

II. Guernsey Cattle. Prof W. H. Caldwell, Sec'y 186 

III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. S. Hoxie, Supt 193 

IV. Ayrshires. C. M. Winslow, Sec'y 194 

V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. J. H. Pickrell, Sec'y 196 

VI. Red Polled Cattle. J. McLain Smith, Sec'y 199 

VII. Devon Cattle. L. P. Sisson, Sec'y 202 

VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. H. B. Richards, Sec'y 204 

IX. Brown-Swiss Cattle. N. S. Fish, Sec'y 206 

Yield of Milk and Fat from Dairy Cows 208 

Results of Tests of Dairy Breeds Conducted by American Ex- 
periment Stations 209 



X TABLE OF CON TEN tS. 

PAGE 

Results of Breed Tests Conducted at World's Columbian Ex- 
position, 1893 210 

Average Yields of Milk and Fat by Premium Cows at Recent 

State Fairs 211 

Highest Record for Yield of Fat Made by Any Cow in a Public 

Test in America 211 

Official Milk and Butter Records of Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, 

and Ayrshire Cows 212 

Results of English Milking Trials ,... 212 

English Standards for Annual Yield of Milk of the Various 

Breeds 213 

Average Yields and Composition of Milk of Different Breeds.. 213 
Average Percentage Composition of Milk from Different Breeds. 214 

Method of Judging the Value of Dairy Cows 214 

Buying and Selling Cows by Tests of their Milk 215 

Fifty Dairy Rules 216 

II. MILK. 

Percentage Composition of Various Kinds of Milk 220 

Average Analyses of American Samples of Dairy Products 220 

Average Composition of Cows' Milk, with Variations 221 

Composition of Morning and Evening Milk, and of Morning, 

Noon, and Evening Milk 221 

Composition of Different Parts of the Same Milking 221 

Calculation of Components of Cows' Milk 222 

Relation of Fat to Casein and Other Solids 222 

Fertilizing Ingredients in Dairy Products 223 

Composition of Colostrum 223 

Composition of Ash of Cows' Milk and Colostrum 223 

A Chapter on Milk Testing 224 

Table for Converting N. Y. Bd. of Health Lactometer Degrees 

to Quevenne Lactometer Degrees 22'j 

Temperature Correction Table for Specific Gravity of Milk 228 

Calculation of Total Solids of Milk 230 

Table for Calculating Solids not Fat from Specific Gravity and 

Fat '.. 2Z2 

Calculation of Specific Gravity of Milk Solids 233 

Milk Standards in Different States, Cities, and Countries 234 

Adulteration of Milk 236 

Ranges of the Variations in the Composition of Herd Milk., 22,7 

Tables for Converting Quarts of Milk into Pounds, and vice versa 238 

III. CREAM. 

Percentage Composition of Cream and Other Dairy Products 239 

Yield of Cream from Milk of Different Richness 240 

Calculation of Per Cent Fat in Cream 241 

Hand and Power Cream-Separators on the American Market, 1900 242 



TABLE OF C0KTKNT8. 



PAGE 

Formulas for Finding the Fat Content of Cream 244 

Handling and Care of Cream Separators. J. D. Frederiksen, 

Mgr. Chr. Hansen's Laboratory, Little Falls, N. Y 245 

Per Cent Fat in Centrifugal Skim-milk 246 

Loss of Butter Caused by Inefficient Skimming 251 

Relation of Fat Content of Separator Skim-milk to Speed of 

Bowl, Quantity of Milk Separated, and Temperature of the 

Milk. 7. 252 

Steam-boiler and Engine Management. Prof. A. W. Richter, of 

the LTniversity of Wisconsin 252 

On the Preservation of Milk and Cream by Heat. Dr. H. L. 

Russell, of Wisconsin Experiment Station 256 

Directions for the Sterilization of Milk 259 

Quantity of Water or Ice Required for Cooling Milk or Cream. 260 



IV. BUTTER. 

Butter-making. H. B. Gurler, cx-President Illinois State Dairy- 
men's Association 261 

On the Use of Pure Cultures in Butter- and Cheese-making 2(53 

Boyd's Process of Cream-ripeiiing. John Boyd, Chicago, 111 267 

The Alkaline Tablet Test of Acidity in Milk or Cream. Prof. 

E. H. Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School 270 

Directions for the Use of ]\Ianns' Test for Ascertaining the 

Acidity of Cream 272 

Percentage Composition of Butter 273 

Average Chemical Composition of Sweet Cream- and Sour 

Cream-butter 273 

Analyses of American Premium Butters 274 

Analyses of Foreign Samples of Butter 274 

Formula for Calculating the Yield of Butter 275 

Conversion Factor for Calculating Yield of Butter from the 

Yield of Butter Fat 275 

Amount of Butter Obtained from 100 lbs. of Cream of Dififerent 

Richness 275 

Yield of Butter Corresponding to Yield of Butter-fat, per Day 
and per Week 275a 

1005 — 100 

V alue of for Sp. Gr. 1.019 to 1.0399 275^ 

Relation of Fat Content to Acidity of Skim-milk, Milk, and 

Cream 275^ 

Yield of Butter from Milk of )ififer-;nt Richness 276 

Milk Required for Making One Pound of Butter 277,278 

Distribution of Milk Ingredients in Butter-making 278 

Score for Judging Butter 278 

English Scale of Points for Judging Butter 279 



Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Score in Judging Proficiency of Butter-makers 279 

Analyses of American Dairy Salts 280 

V. CHEESE. 

How American Cheese is Alade. Prof. John W. Decker, of Ohio 
Dairy School 281 

A. Factory or Cheddar Cheese 281 

B. Cheese Alade on the Farm 283 

Detecting Bad Milk. Directions for Operating the Wisconsin 

Curd Test 284 

Causes of Tainted Milk 284 

The Fermentation Test 286 

Determination of Humidity in Cheese- curing Rooms 288 

Table Showing Relative Humidity of the Air 289 

Score for Judging Cheese 2^1 

English Scale of Points for Judging Cheese 291 

Percentage Composition of Cheese 292 

Varieties and Analyses of Cheese 292 

Distribution of Ingredients in Cheese-making 293 

Formulas for Finding Yield of Cheddar Cheese 293 

Yield of Different Kinds of Cheese from 100 lbs. of Milk 294 

Average Loss of American Cheddar Cheese in Curing 295 

Loss in Weight of Different Kinds of Cheese during Curing 295 

Table Showing Relative Cheese Value of Milks of Different 

Richness 296 

Synopsis of IManufacture of Principal Varieties of Cheese 298 

Quantities of Whey to be Returned to Patrons 299 

VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND CHEESE 
FACTORIES. 

Directions for Taking and Preserving Composite Samples of 

Milk in Creameries and Cheese Factories 300 

Payment for Milk at Creameries and Cheese Factories 302 

7 lethods of Payment for Milk at Cheese and Butter Factories... 303 

Price of Milk of Different Richness per Hundred Pounds 305 

Directions for Making Dividends in Creameries and Cheese 

Factories 307 

Table Showing Average Per Cent of Fat in ]\.I;lk 309 

Suggestions to Patrons of Cheese Factories and Creameries 311 

By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Creamery Associations 313 

By-lav/s and Rules for Co-operative Cheese Factories 316 

Rules for Patrons and Instructions to Cream or Milk Gatherers. 318 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll 



PART III. GENERAL TOPICS. 

I. CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 

PAGE 

Constitution and By-laws of Agricultural Clubs 321 

Constitution of Village-improvement Societies 3-:6 

Constitution of Road Leagues 3-^ 

IL MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 

Explanation of Flag Signals Adopted by the U. S. Weather 

Bureau 330 

List of Headquarters of State Weather Services zz^ 

Beneficial and Harmful Hawks and Owls 33-' 

How Patents are Issued 333 

Legal Holidays 337 

What to do in Case of Accidents. J. Noer, M.D., Stoughton, 

Wis 339 

Treatment for Poisoning 342 

Interest Tables 344 

Wages by the Week and the Day 345 

Number of Days between Dates within Two Years 346 

Domestic and Foreign Postage 347 

Postal and Express Money Order Rates 348 

III. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Customary System of Weights and Measures 349 

Metric System of Weights and Measures 350 

Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric, and 

vice versa 351 

Kilograms Converted into Pounds, and vice versa 352 

Inches Reduced to Decimals of a Foot 352 

Ounces Reduced to Decimals of a Pound 352 

Weight and Measure Conversion Table 353 

Table of Reciprocals of Numbers 351 

Comparisons of Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Reaumur Ther- 
mometer Scales : 355 

Government Land Measures 358 

To Measure Corn on the Cob in Cribs 359 

Reckoning of Amount and Value of Hay 359 

Strength of Ropes 361 

Legal Weights of Grain, Seeds, etc 362 

Specific Gravity of Various Substances 363 

Values of Foreign Coins 365 

Money Conversion Table 366 



XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

IV. STATISTICAL TABLES. 

PAGE 

United States, Area and Population, 1890 367 

Canada, Area and Population, 1891 367 

Normal Mean Temperature of the Air in the United States 368 

Average and Actual Date of Last and First Killing Frost 369 

Normal Precipitation in the United States 371 

Meteorological Data for Canada 372 

Comparison of Leading Industries in the United States 372 

Farming Population of the United States yjz 

Number and Classification of the Agricultural Population, 10 

Years and Over 373 

Number of Farms in the United States, and their Value ^t^ 

Statistics Concerning Farms in the United States 375 

Average Agricultural Wages in the United States in 1893-95 376 

Areas of Appropriated, Vacant, and Reserved Lands in the 

United States, 1898 373 

Value of Principal Farm Products, 1859-89 376 

Statistics of the Principal Crops in the United States in 1895 yjj 

Area, Product, and Value of Principal Crops in the United 

States, 1898 381 

The Principal Cereal Products of the United States, 1850-1890 381 

Production of Various Crops in Canada, 1891 381 

Average Cost per Acre of Raising Wheat, Corn, and Cotton in 

the United States, 1893 382 

Average Farm Price of Agricultural Products, 1890-1898 382 

Estimated Number of Farm Animals on Farms and Ranges in 

the United States, Price per Head, and Value, January, 1896. 383 

Dairy Statistics for the United States (Eleventh Census) 385 

Number and Value of Farm Animals in the United States, 1870-95 387 

Number of Farm Animals in Canada, 1891 387 

Number of Pure-bred Cattle in the United States, 1898 387 

Dairy Products Produced on Farms, according to the Eleventh 

Census 388 

Statistics of Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories 

(Eleventh Census) 389 

Cheese, Butter, and Condensed-milk Factories in the United 

States, according to States 390 

Wool Product of the United States, 1898 390 

Production and Consumption of Sugar in the United States, 1897 390 
Beet Sugar Production in the United States by Factories, 1898-9. 391 

Sugar Imports for the Year Ending June 30, 1898 391 

Poultry and Egg Product of the United States 392 

Importance of Apiarian Industry in the United States 392 

Production of Honey and Beeswax in the United States, accord- 
ing to Census Returns of 1869, 1879, and 1889 392 

Agricultural Imports and Exports in the United States, 1897-98.. 393 
Domestic Exports of Butter and Cheese, 1870-98 398 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV 



PAGE 

Exports of Dairy Products from Canada, 1868-95 39^ 

The Fertilizer Industry of the United States 395 

Imports and Exports of Fertilizers in 1896 353 

Imports of Fertilizers and Fertilizer Materials, 1896 393 

V. DIRECTORY OF AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization of the L^. S. Department of Agriculture 400 

Ministers of Agriculture in Canada 40 1 

American Educational Institutions having Courses in Agriculture 40:: 
Statistics of Agricultural Schools and Colleges in the United 

States 404 

List of American Veterinary Colleges 406 

Dairy Schools in the United States and Canada 407 

Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States and 

Canada 408 

Superintendents of Farmers' Institutes 40a 

VI. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 

More Important Works on Dairying 410 

A List of Sixty Agricultural and Horticultural Books 412 

List of American and Foreign Dairy Papers 414 

The Main American Agricultural and Horticultural Papers 416 

Index , 421 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



Chart showing Pounds of Water and of 
Digestible Matter in 100 lbs. 

Digestible Digestible 

Water Protein Carbohydrates 



Digestible 
Fat 



10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10" 



Pasture grass 
Green clover 
Green corn 
Com silage 
Fodder Corn 
Com stalks 
Timothy hay 
Red Clover hay 
Oat straw 
Potatoes 
Mangel-wurzels 
Carrots 
Indian Com 
Wheat 
Barley 
Oats 
Bye 

Pea meal 
Com & cob meal 
Com cob 
Wheat bran 
Wheat middlings 
Bice bran 
Linseed meal O.P. 
Linseed meal N.P. 
Cotton seed meal 
Cotton seed hulls 
Gluten meal 
"Malt sprouts 
Brewers^ grains 





10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100ft||> 



PART I. AGRICULTURE. 



I. FEEDING STUFFS. 
COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

In the ordinary chemical analysis of feeding stuffs the 
following constituents are determined, viz., water, ash, pro- 
tein, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, ether extract (fat). 

Water is present in all feeding stuffs, from above 90 per 
cent in green foods and some kinds of roots, to below 10 per 
cent in very dry hay and in concentrated food stuffs. 

Ash^ or mineral matter, is the non-combustible part of 
plants, and goes to make the bones of the animal, or to sup- 
ply material for the maintenance of other parts of the ani- 
mal body. 

Protein is the name of a large group of substances, all 
characterized by the fact that they contain the element ni- 
trogen; hence they are also called nitrogenous substances, 
and foods rich in protein are spoken of as nitrogenous foods. 
The protein substances supply the material necessary for the 
formation of lean meat, ligaments, tendons, hair, horns, 
hoofs, etc., and also of casein of the milk. Crude protein 
includes albuminoids and amides; among the former are 
found white of ^ZZ-' l^^n meat, curd of milk, and gluten; 
among the latter, asparagin and other crystallizable and 
water-soluble substances, generally speaking, of a somewhat 
inferior nutritive value. 

Crude Fiber or woody fiber is the framework of plants, 
forming the walls of their cells ; it is usually the least 
digestible portion of feeding stuffs, and the nutritive value 
of a plant is decreased as its crude fiber content increases. 

Nitrogen-free Extract includes starch, sugar, gums, or- 
ganic acids, etc., and forms a most important and usually a 
very large part of cattle foods. Together with cellulose, 
nitrogen-free extract forms the group of bodies called carbo- 

I 



4 AGRICULTURE. 

hydrates. A general name for carbohydrates is heat-produc- 
ing substances, as against flesh-for77iing substances, i.e., 
nitrogenous compounds, the names indicating the main 
offices of the substances in animal nutrition. 

Ether Extract, or crtide fat {oil) includes a group of com- 
pounds dissolved out by ether in the analysis of foods; fat 
forms the main part of the extract; most feeding stuffs 
contain only a small quantity of fat, but this component 
is nevertheless of considerable importance in the feeding 
of animals. 

Organic Matter signifies the combustible portion of chemi- 
cally dry feeding stuffs, i.e., all the components given in the 
preceding except water and ash. 

Digestible Components. — The food stuffs used in the feed- 
ing of farm animals are only partly of direct value to the 
animals, the portion which their digestive fluids are unable 
to dissolve being voided in the excrements. The digesti- 
bility of fodders has been determined by direct experiments 
with different kinds of farm animals, in this country or 
abroad. The digestion coefficients (see pp. 6-8) mean the 
percentages of any one component which have been found 
to be digested by the animals experimented on. 

Nut7-itive Ratio signifies the ratio between the digestible 
nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous components in a feeding 
stuff, or a combination of such. As fat has been found to 
yield about 2.2 times more heat, when burned, than do starch, 
sugar, and other carbohydrates, the per cent of digestible 
fat in a food is multiplied by 2.2 when the nutritive ratio is 
to be calculated; the product is added to the per cent of 
digestible carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract -f- crude 
fiber), and this sum is divided by the per cent of digestible 
protein. (The factor •z\ or 2\ is sometimes used for obtain- 
ing "the starch equivalent" of fat.) 

Example : Clover hay contains on the average 6. 5 per cent 
digestible protein, 34.9 per cent digestible carbohydrates, 
And 1.6 per cent digestible fat (see following table); 

1.6X2.3 = 3-52; 34-9 + 3-52 = 38.42; 38.42-^6.5 — 5.9. 

Nutritive ratio, i : 5.9, 



FEEDIN-G STUFFS. 



AVERAGE COBIPOSITION OP AMERICAN 
FEEDING STUFFS. 



Feeding Stuffs. 



Green Fodders and 
Silage. 

Pasture grass 

Green fodder corn 

(maize) 

Alfalfa (lucern) 

Green clover 

Alsike clover, in bloom 

Rye fodder 

Oat fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

Red top, in bloom 

Meadow fescue, in 

bloom 

Timothy 

Blue-grass 

Prickly comfrey 

Corn silage 

Corn silage, Wis. anal 

Clover silage .. 

Sorghum silage 



Hay and Dry Coarse 

Fodders. 
Fodder corn (maize), 

field cured 

Same, Wis. analyses.. . . 
Corn stalks (stover), 

field cured 

Hay from red clover 
Hay from mammoth 

clover 

Hay f 'm alfalfa (lucern) 
Hay from alsike clover 

Oat hay 

Timothy hay 

Hay from mixed mea^ 

dow grasses 

Hay from Hun. grass.. 

Flax hay 

Crab-grass hay 

Marsh hay 

Oat straw 

Barley strawt 

Wheat straw 

Rye straw 

Buckwheat straw 

Pea vinet 



Percentage Composition. 



79-3 
71.8 
70.8 
74.8 
76.6 
62.2 
79-4 
64.8 

69.9 

61.6 

65.1 

•4 

73-6 
72.0 
76 



42 
9.0 

40.1 
5-3 

21.2 
8.4 
9-7 
8.9 
3 



3-5 



5 

7-4 
8.1 
7-4 
II. 6 

6. 
9.4 

10.8 
II. 

9- 

1.6 

6 



6.4 



14.3 



3.0 19.7 
12.3I24.8 

10.724.5 
I4.3'25 
12.8 25.6 
7-6;29.3 
5.929.0 



4-0 37- 
3-5 36- 
3-4 38- 
3.038. 
5-2 43- 



9 
o 
9-0135-5 



9-7 



19-3 
II. 6 
19. 1 

143 
20.2 
17.6 
5 
II. I 
12. y 
II. 6 



34-7 
36.5 



33.6 

42.7 

40.7 

45 

450 

41.0 
49.0 
30.1 
41.0 
46.3 
42.4 
39-0 
43-4 
46.6 
35-1 
33-7 



o 



[8.0 



•5 19 
1-025.5 

I.I|27. 

•9|23- 
.6 21.6 

1.4 
•5 

1.2 



35-3 
19-5 
32-9 

28.3 
36.3 
32. 
9.4 

8,i9-5 

924 

2 1 25 

3 22 



1.655- 

1.7,66. 

I. 156. 5 
3-3|78.5 

3. 9172. 7 
2.2 84 
2.9,82 
2.9 84.9 
2.5j82.4 



179-4 
,86.3 
1 80, 2 
82.4 
86.9 
85-7, 
80 



89.7 
84.6 
79.8 



Per cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 



d 





















£ 


^i 






T3 


£> 2 


^ 


rt-O 


u 


u 


2.6 


10.6 


1-3 


II. 8 


3-6 


II. 4 


2.9 


14. 1 


2.7 


^3•I 


2.1 


14. 1 


2.7 


22.7 


.8 


12.7 


2.3 


20.5 


1-7 


17.8 


2.2 


23.0 


2.q 


iq.2 


1.4 


4.6 


.8 


II. 6 


1-3 


14.0 


2.0 


13-5 


.6 


14.9 


2.6 


33-3 


3-7 


40.4 


2.0 


.33.4 


b.5 


34-9 


5.7 


32.0 


xo.t. 


41.4 


6.8 


^6.8 


4.3 


46.4 


30 


43-9 


3.6 


42.7 


4-5 


46.4 


7.2 


36.6 


2.2 


42.8 


3-5 


44.7 


1.6 


41.4 


•9 


41.3 


.8 


37-9 


.8 


42.7 


2.3 


37-7 


4-3 


32.3 



* I.a'eely from Jenkins and Winton's Compilation of Analyses of 
American Feeding Stuffs, t Konig. 



AGRICULTURE. 

AVERAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF AMERICAN 
FEEDING STVFFS.— Continued. 



Feeding Stuffs. 



Roots and Tubers. 

Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes 

Red beets 

Sugar beets 

Mangel-wurzels , 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Artichoke 

Grains and Flour Mill 
Products. 

Corn (maize) 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn cob 

Corn bran (hulls) 

Oats 

Oat shorts* 

Oat feed 

Oathulls 

Oat dust 

Barley 

Barley screenings 

Wheat 

Wheat bran— roller pro- 
cess 

Wheat bran— old pro- 
cess 

Wheat shorts 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat screenings.. ... 

Low-grade flour ("red 
dog") 

Rye 

Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat shorts 

Buckwheat middlings.. 

Rice 

Rice bran 

Rice hulls 

Rice polish 

Pea meal 



310 



Percentage Composition. 



78.9 

71- 

88.5 

86. 5 

90.9 

88.6 

90.5 

88.6 



5-6 

4.9 
4.6 
3-4 
.6 2.9 



2.2 

\% 

5-9 
2.0 

3-0 
5-1 
51 
•4 
10. o 
13.2 
6.7 
2.6 



2.6 



10.5 
8.5 
2.4 
9.0 

16 

16.0 
3-3 
13-5 
12.4 
12.3 
II. 9 



14.9 
15-7 

12-5 

15-8 
10.6 
14.7 
18.0 
10.0 
12.4 
27.1 
28.2 

7-4 
12. 1 

3-6 
II. 7 



8.3 



17-3 
24.7 
8 
9 

5-5 
7-5 
6.2 
7.6 
15-9 



69.6 
64.8 
54-9 

fl2.2 

59-7 
54-5 
59-4 
52.1 
50.2 
69.8 
61.8 
71.9 

53-7 

58.2 
56.8 
60.2 

65. T 

67.7 
72.5 
63.8 

59-9 
64-5 
38.8 
40.8 
42.3 
79.2 
49.9 
38.6 
58.0 
51-1 



20.1 

27.9 



a. 7 
10.4 

19.5 



Per cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 



12.6 

10. 1 
II. 6 
12.2 
9.8 



7.6 
9-3 
4- 
7- 

5-5 

i-8 



64.8 
56.3 

43-9 

59- 

44-7 

45-7 

46.9 

40. 

.^8 . 4 

66. 

57-3 

64.9 

44. 

47-5 
45-4 
47.2 
51.0 

61.3 

65.5 

48.0 

45 

49 

30 

33 

33 

72 

45 
44 
56 



56.0 



Konig. 



FEEDING STUFFS. 

AVERAGE C031P0SITI0N OF A3IERICAN 
FEEDING STUFFS.— C^«^/««^./. 



Feeding Stuffs. 



Sorghum seed 

Cow pea 

Soja bean 

Miscellaneous Feeds, 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, wet . . 

Brewers' grains, dried. 

Hominy chops (meal).. 

Gluten feed 

Cream gluten meal 

Chicago gluten meal. . . 

Corn oil cake .. 

Germ meal (corn germ) 

Grano-gluten 

Starch feed, wet 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Linseed meal, old pro- 
cess 

Linseed meal, new pro- 
cess 

Palm-nut meal* 

Sugar-beet leaves 

Prickly comfrey 

Rape '. 

Pumpkins 

Apples* 

Apple pomace 

Beet molasses 

Beet pulp 

Meat-scraps* 

Dried blood* 

Skimmed milk* 

Buttermilk* 

Whey* 



Percentage Composition. 



lO 12. 

5 U- 



5 9 
15,75 

5 7 

14 ID 

r 8 

5|8 
3 9 

3 9 

4 lo 

^'/ 

12 05 

37 



9.9 



14 10. 
600 10. 



9.1 

20.8 



24.8 

5-4 

22.2 

9.9 

21.6 

32.8 

35-8 

24.8 

0.0 

i.o 

6.1 

42.4 

4.2 

32.9 

33-2 
36 8 
2.6 
2.4 
2.3 
1-3 
•4 
1.4 



3-0 
12.3 

3-7 
6.8 

1-7 
1-5 
6.7 
50 

II. 4 
31 
5-6 

47-4 

8.9 

9-5 
24.0 
2.2 
1.6 
2.6 
1-7 
1.5 
3-9 



69.8 
55-7 
28.8 



47.0 
12.5 
47-9 
64.4 
49 6 
42 .0 
46.8 
43.6 
64.2 
34-8 
22.0 
23.8 
33-2 

35-4 

38.5 

35-0 

4.4 

5.1 

8.4 

5-2 

2.5 

6.2 

59-5 

6.3 

•3 

4-7 
4.0 
4.8 



1-7 

1.6 

6.3 

8.5 
12.7 
14. 1 

5.6 
13-5 

6.8 
14.2 

3-1 



13-7 

2-5 



c z: 



Per cent 
Digestible 

Matter. 



82.o"i8.3 
84.5 29.6 



84.5 

23-3! 
88. 7I 
86.6: 



86 

91 

34 

84.6 

87 



85.1 

84.1 

85-3 

9.6 

9.4 

13-5 
8.6 
14.7 
22.8 
68.6 
9.6 
85.2 
86.8 
8.9 
9.2 
5-9 



16.2 
8.9 
18.6 

29-5 
32.2 
22.3 

9.0 
26.7 

5-5 
36.9 

1.0 



27 
16.0 

1-7 
1.4 

1-5 



.6 
68.4 
58.1 
3-1 
3-9 



U 



52 
54 
17.9 



3-1 
I.I 

15-9 



1-7 
1-3 
5-3 
7.8 
II I 
12.8 
S-i 
12.3 



26.2 

32.8 

32-9 
52.6 
4.6 



2.7 
9.0 



13-5 
2.3 



4.0 
4-7 



Konig. 



Agriculture. 



AVERAGE A3IERICAN DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS 

OF FEEDING STUFFS 

As Determined by American Experiments. (Jordan.) 















^ 






—. 






s 


rt 






X 






% 




cS 


a 


•c 


V 




g^ 


XJ 




« 




rt 


a 


H 


rt 




c 


£ 


C . 
■•-• 


ti 




6 


6 


c 




•s 





1) 
1 




1 




^; 


^; 


cio 


Q 


< 


(i 


u 


Z 


w 


A. — Experiments with Ruminants. 




GREEN FODDER (fed whcn grccn). 




















Corn (maize) fodder- 




















Whole plant, average of all trials. . . 


2 


15 


30 


68 


35 


61 


61 


74 


74 


Dent, immature, Pennsylvania 






9 


68 


57 


■ 69 


69 


71 


66 


in milk, Pennsylvania 






6 


68 


33 
22 


62 


63 
54 
59 


73 
75 
74 


76 


mature, Pennsylvania 






13 


67 


53 
47 


78 


Sorghum, North Carolina and Texas.. 






4 


67 


42 


74 


Rye, Peni'.syivania 






2 


73 
63 


56 
32 


4I 


56 


70 
66 


74 


Timothy {Phleum pratense), Utah. ... 






3 


53 


Hungarian grass {Setaria italica)., Me. 






4 


63 


41 


62 


68 


66 


52 


Pasture grass, Pennsylvania 








69 


50 


65 


74 


7'i 


55 


Red clover ( Tri/olium pratense) 






2 


66 


55 


67 


53 


64 


silage. 




















Corn (maize) silage, whole plant- 




















Average of all kinds 


6 


17 


37 


66 


31 


53 


67 


70 


81 


Dent, immature, Maine, New York 








and Pennsylvania 


3 


5 


12 


64 


33 
32 


49 
50 


71 
65 


66 


75 


Dent, in milk, Pennsylvania 


I 


3 


8 


65 


69 
77 


l^ 


Flint mature, Maine and New York. 


2 


4 


10 


73 


30 


63 


75 


83 


Soja-bean silage 


I 


I 


2 


59 


57 


76 


55 


52 


72 






dried FODDERS (fed air-dry or partially 
so). 




















Corn (maize) fodder, whole plant- 




















Average of all kinds 


4 


24 


50 


66 


34 


55 


66 


69 


72 


Dent, immature, Maine and Penn. .. 


2 


6 


12 


62 


38 


51 


67 


64 


68 


in milk, New York and Penn.. 


2 


5 


12 


63 


31 


45 


64 


66 


76 


mature, Pennsylvania 


J 


4 
4 

3 

I 


6 


70 
66 




55 
65 
64 
21 


^1 

74 
73 
79 


77 

69 
75 


79 


Flint, mature, Maine 




2 


42 
II 


Sweet, mature, Maine 


I 
I 


70 
74 
79 
32 


Corn (maize) butts, Maryland 


husks, Maryland 


I 


I 


2 


72 


16 


29 


fodder, tops above ear, 




















Maryland 


I 


I 


2 


55 


7 


22 


70 


53 


63 


pulled, Maryland, 




















North Carolina 




















and Texas 


3 


3 


6 


60 




SI 


69 


63 


64 


stover, Pennsylvania . . 


I 


I 


4 


62 


45 


52 


66 


64 


52 


Sorghum fodder, leaves, N. Carolina.. 


1 


I 


2 


63 


29 


61 


70 


64 


47 


Oat straw, Maine 


I 


T 


2 

_J 


50 






58 


53 


38 



FEEDING STUFFS. ^ 

AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS.— c^«//««^rf. 



A.— ExPRTS. WITH Ruminants — Cont. 

DRIED FODDERS — Continued. 

Hay from grasses named: 

Barley, Maine 

Blue joint {Calamagrostis canaden- 
sis), Maine 

Cat-tail millet {Pennisetum spica- 

tum). North Carolina 

Hungarian grass (Setaria italica), 

Maine 

Johnson grass {Sorghum halepense)^ 

North Carolina 

Orchard grass {Dactylis glomerata), 

Maine and New York 

Redtop {Agrostis 7iulgaris\ Maine. 
Timothy {PHleum pratense), average 

of all kinds, Maine and Utah. 

ditto, in full bloom, Maine.. . . 
ditto, late cut, Maine.. 
Wild-oat grass {Danthonia spicata), 

Maine 

Witch-grass {Triticujti rej>ens). Me.. 

Pasture grass, Pennsylvania 

Mixed grasses. New York and Penn. 
Hay from legumes named: 

Alfalfa, Colorado, New York, and 

Utah 

Alsike clover ( Trifoliuvt hybridum), 

Maine 

Crimson clover {Trifoliiim incarna- 

tum), North Carolina 

Red clover {Tri/olium pratense), 

Maine and Wisconsin 

White cXovQT {Trifoliunt repens),Me. 

Cowpea vines, North Carolina 

Soja-bean vines, North Carolina 

MISCELLANEOUS FODDERS. 

Buttercup hay (Ranunctiiiis acri's). Me. 

Peanut-vine hay, North Carolina 

Sorghum bagasse. North Carolina 

White weed, white daisy {Chrysanthe- 
mum leucanthemum),M.SL\nQ.. 



Sugar-beets, Maine 

Mangel-wurzels, Maine. 













^ 




















>i 












vd 




W 


t 




_U5 






X 


J3 


^ 


o 


C/) 

6 


"So 
c 




4, 


c 

2 


•a 


2S 


'4. 


;z; 


C/3 


Q 


< 


PlH 


U 


z 




I 


4 


6i 


45 


65 


62 


63 




2 


3 


54 


29 


63 


54 


56 




I 


2 


62 


68 


63 


66 


59 




I 


2 


65 


47 


60 


68 


67 




I 


I 


54 


56 


45 


58 


54 




2 


3 


56 




59 


60 


„ 




2 


3 


60 


29 


6x 


61 


62 




ID 


22 


58 


37 


49 


S3 


63 




.3 


5 


61 


44 


57 


50 


64 




3 


5 


54 


32 


45 


48 


61 




2 


2 


64 


^S 


58 


68 


6s 




2 


3 


61 


41 


58 


63 


6s 




2 


3 


72 


52 


73 


76 


74 




4 


9 


56 





SI 


55 


59 




3 


4 


59 




72 


46 


70 




2 


3 


62 


52 


66 


53 


71 




I 


2 


61 


53 


69 


46 


70 




2 


7 


S3 




52 


47 


61 




I 


I 


66 


58 


73 


61 


69 




I 


2 


SQ 


4Q 


bS 


42 


71 




I 


2 


62 




71 


61 


69 




I 


I 


S6 


48 


S6 


41 


67 




I 


2 


60 


20 


63 


S2 


6q 




I 


I 


61 


13 


14 


46 


65 




I 


^ 


58 


52 


58 


45 


67 




I 


2 


04 


32 


Qi 


100 


100 




' 


2 


78 


16 


" 


43 


91 



8 AGRICULTURE. 

AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS.— Continued. 



A. — ExpRTS. WITH Ruminants— Cont. 
ROOTS — Continued. 



Rutabagas, Maine 

Turnips (strap-leaf), Maine. 
Potatoes, Maine 



GRAINS (fed whole or ground). 

Corn and cob meal, North Carolina. . . 
Corn meal, North Carolina and N, Y. 

Cotton seed, raw. North Carolina 

roasted, North Carolina. 
Pea meal, Maine 



BY-PRODUCTS. 

Brewers' grains, dried, Massachusetts 

Corn cobs, Massachusetts 

Cotton-seed hulls, N. Car. and Texas. 

meal, N. Car. and Wis — 

Gluten feed (Buffalo), Massachusetts.. 

meal, Maine 

Linseed meal, new process, Mass 

old process. Mass 

Malt sprouts, Wisconsin 

Wheat bran,Maine and Massachusetts; 

middlings, Maine and Mass 

B,— Experiments with Swine. 

GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS. 

Barley, Minnesota 

Corn (maize) (whole kernel), Maine and 

Minnesota 

meal, Maine 

Corn and cob meal, Maine 

Peas, Minnesota 

Wheat shorts, Minnesota 

Wheat bran, Minnesota 



tz; c73 



oS> 
X 



56. 
87 44 



86 

89 

76 

90 40 

76 5 

61 



W 



FEEDING STUFFS. 9 

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTL.E FOODS. (Lindsey.) 



Coarse Feeds. 




Concentrated Feeds. 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


Low in protein. 


Medium in 


Low in pro- 


Low in pro- 


High in pro- 


High in carbo- 


protein. 


tein. 


tein. 


tein. 


hydrates. 


Medium in 


High in car- 


High in car- 


Medium in 


50 to 65 per cent 


c ar boh y- 


bohydrates. 


bohydrates. 


car bohy- 


digestible. 


drates. 


85 to 95 per 


80 to 90 per 


drates. 




55 to 65 per 


cent digest- 


cent digest- 


80 to 90 per 




cent digest- 
ible. 


ible. 


ible. 


cent digest- 
ible. 


Hays, straws, 


Clovers, 


Carrots, pota- 


Wheat, rye. 


Bean and pea 


corn fodder, 


vetches, pea 


toes, sugar 


barley, oats, 


meals, glu- 


corn stover, 


and bean 


beets, man- 


Indian (.urn. 


ten feeds 


and silage. 


fodders and 


golds, tur- 




and meals, 




brans. 


nips. 




linseed 
meals and 








cotton -seed 










meal. 



CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATED FEED 
STUFFS. 



Very rich in 

protein (above 40 

per cent). 



Dried blood. 
Meat scraps. 
Cotton-seed meal. 



Rich in protein 
(25-40 per cent). 



Gluten meal. 
Atlas meal. 
Linseed meal. 
Buckwheat mid- 
dlings. 
Buckwheat shorts 
Soja bean. 
Grano gluten. 



Fairly rich in 

protein (12-25 P^r 

cent). 



Malt sprouts. 
Dried brewers' 

grains. 
Gluten feed. 
Cow pea. 
Pea meal. 
Wheat shorts. 
Rye shorts. 
Oats shorts. 
Wheat middlings. 
Wheat bran. 
Low-grade flour. 



Poor in protein 

(below 12 per 

cent). 



Wheat. 

Barley. 

Oats. 

Rye. 

Corn. 

Rice polish. 

Rice. 

Hominy chops. 

Germ meal. 



10 



AGRICULTURE. 



FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 

(Wolff-Lehmann.) 
(Per day and per looo lbs. live weight.) 



1. Steers at rest in stall 

Steers slightly worked 

Steers moderately worked 

Steers heavily worked 

2. Fattening steers, ist period 

2d " 

" 3d " 

3. Milch cows, daily milk yield, 11 lbs 

" " ' 16,5 '' 

i( tt i( U it 22 ' 

" " " " 27.6 " 

4. Wool sheep, coarser breeds 

" " finer breeds 

5. Breeding ewes, with lambs . . 

6. Fattening sheep, ist period 

" " 2d " 

7. Horses lightly worked 

Horses moderately worked 

Horses heavily worked 

8. Brood sows, with pigs 

9. Fattening swine, ist period 

2d " 

" 3d " 

10. Growing cattle: 

Dairy Breeds, 

Aver, live weight 

Age, Months. per head, 
2-3 154 lbs.... 

3-6 309 " •••• 

6-12 507 " .... 

12-18 705 " .... 

18-24 882 " 






lbs. 
18 



Nutritive 
(Digestible) 
Substances. 



c 
■5 


a; 


lbs. 


lbs. 


0.7 


8.0 


1-4 


10. 


2.0 


"•5 


2.8 


13-0 


2-5 


15-0 


3-0 


M-5 


2.7 


15.0 


1.6 


10. 


2.0 


1 1.0 


2-5 


13.0 


3-3 


13.0 


1 .2 


10. s 


1-5 


12.0 


2.9 


15.0 


3-0 


15.0 


3-5 


14.5 


1-5 


9-5 


2.0 


II. 


2.5 


13-3 


2.5 


15-5 


45 


25.0 


4.0 
2.7 


24.0 
18.0 


4.0 
3-0 


13.0 

12.8 


2.0 


12.5 


1.8 


12-5 


1.5 


12.0 






il 


lbs. 
8.9 
12. 1 


14.7 
17.7 


18.7 
19.2 
19.4 


12.3 

14.0 

16.7 
18.2 


12.2 


14.2 


19. 1 


19.2 
19.4 


12.0 


14-5 
17.7 


19.0 


31.2 
29.2 
22.0 


21.8 
18.2 


15.7 
15-3 
14.2 



Deeding stuffs. 



11 



FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 

{Concluded.) 







Nutritive 










(Digestible) 










Substances. 


> 







. 








•Hw 


rt 








If- 






^ 






c 
•Si 


4J 
1 ^ 
It 


1) X 


% ' 


> 




OC/3 


= fX 


^^ 


•SW 


ow 


3 




H 


U 


U 


w 


H " 


?■ 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




n. Growing cattle: 














Bee/ Breeds. 














Aver, live weight 














Age^ Months. per head. 














2-3 165 lbs 


23 


4 i 


.3.0 


2.0 


20,0 I 


4-2 


3-6 331 ■' 


24 


3-5 


12 8 


1-5 


19.9 I 


4.7 


6-12 551 " 


25 


2.5 


i.i-z 


0.7 


17.4 I 


6.0 


12-18 750 " 


24 


2 < 


'2.5 


0.5 


15-7 I 


6.8 


18-24 937 " 


24 


1.8 


L2.0 


0.4 


14.8 J 


7.2 


12. Growing sheep: 














Wool Breeds. 














4-6 62 lbs 


25 


3-4 


15-4 


0.7 


20.5 1 


5-0 


6-8 75 " 


25 


2.8 


13.8 


0.6 


18.0 1 


5-4 


8-n 84 " 


23 


2.1 


11.5 


0.5 


14.8 I 


6.0 


11-15 90 " 


22 


1.8 


II. 2 


0.4 


140 I 


7,0 


15-20 99 " 


22 


I -.5 


10.8 


0.3 


13.0 T 


7-7 


13. Growing sheep: 














Mutton Breeds. 














4-6 66 lbs 


26 


4.4 


15-5 


0.9 


22.1 I 


4.0 


6-8 84 " 


26 


3-5 


I5-0 


0.7 


20.2 I 


4.8 


8-11 lOI " 


24 


3-0 


14-3 


0.5 


18.5 I 


5-2 


ii-iS 121 " 


23 


2.2 


12.6 


05 


16.0 1 


6.3 


15-20 154 " 


22 


2.0 


12.0 


0.4 


15.0 1 


:6.s 


14. Growing swine: 














Breeding A nitnals. 














2-3 44 lbs 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


I.O 


38.0 I 


14.0 


3-5 99 '; 


35 


50 


23-1 


0.8 


30.0 1 


5.0 


5-6 121 ' 


32 


3-7 


21.3 


0.4 


26.0 1 


6.0 


6-8 176 " 


28 


2.8 


18.7 


0.3 


22 2 1 


7.0 


8-13 265 '• 


25 


2.T 


15.3 


0.2 


17.9 I 


•7-5 


15. Growing fat pigs: 














2-3 44 lbs 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


38.0 I 


4.0 


3-5 110 •' 


35 


5.0 


23.1 


0.8 


30.0 1 


5.0 


S-6 143 '' 


33 


4-3 


22.3 


0.6 


28.0 I 


5.5 


6-8 198 " 


30 


3.6 


20.5 


0.4 


25.1 I 


6.0 


8-12 287 " 


26 


3.0 


X8.3 


0.3 


22.0 1 


:6.4 



13 



AGRICULTURE. 



RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. 



Woods & Phelps 

Woll 

Wolff's German Stand'. 
Wolff- Lehman n 



Organic 
Matter. 



lbs. 
25.0 
24-5 
24.0 



Digestible. 



Protein 



lbs. 
2.5 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



lbs. 

12.5 

13-3 

•5 



Fat. 



lbs. 

•6s 
.7 

•4 



(See page 10.) 



Total. 



lbs. 
15.65 
16.2 
15-4 



Nut. 
Ratio. 



1:5.6 
1:6.9 
i:s.4 



CALCULATION OF COMPONENTS OF FEED 
RATIONS. 

Let us suppose that we have at our disposal the following 
common feeding stuffs : Fodder corn, clover hay, and wheat 
bran, and that we want to know how much is required to keep a 
milch cow of 1000 lbs. live weight in good condition and to 
secure a maximum yield of milk. We will feed 14 lbs. of 
fodder corn, 6 lbs. of clover hay, and 10 lbs. of wheat bran. 
According to the table these quantities contain the following 
number of pounds of digestible matter : 





Organic 
Matter. 


Digestible. 




Protein. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Ether 
Extract. 


14 lbs. of field-cured fodder corn 


lbs. 
9.35 
4.71 
8.24 


lbs. 
•52 


lbs. 
5.66 
2.09 
4.41 


lbs. 
.17 


10 lbs. wheat bran 


.29 


Total 


22.30 


2.17 


12.16 


.56 





This ration falls somewhat short of the feeding standard in 
total organic matter and digestible substances. To bring it 
nearer to the standard, we add a couple of pounds of some con- 
centrated feed. In selecting the foods and deciding the quan- 
tities to be given in each case, the market prices of the feeds 
must be considered. We will suppose that a lot of corn-meal is 
available in this case, and will add two pounds of this feed to 
the above ration. 



FEEDING STUFFS. 



13 







Organic 
Matter. 


Digestible. 


Nutri- 




Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Ether 
Extract 


tive 
Ratio. 


R attr>n n«: above 


lbs. 

22.30 

1-75 


lbs. 

2.17 

.14 


lbs. 

12.16 

1.25 


lbs. 
.08 














Total 


24.05 

24.5 
24.0 


2.31 
2.2 

2-5 


13-41 

13-3 
12.5 


.64 

•7 
•4 


1:6.4 


Proposed American feeding 
ration for milch cows 

■Wolff;s feeding standard tor 
milch cows 


1:6.9 
1:5.4 







The ration now corresponds very well with the proposed 
American feeding ration; there is a small deficit of organic 
matter and of digestible fat ; but there is no necessity of trying 
to follow any standard ration blindly, as they are only intended 
to be approximate gauges which the farmer may use in estimat- 
ing the quantities of nutrietits required by farm animals in 
order to do their best, cost and product both being considered. 

In constructing rations according to the above feeding 
standards, several points must be considered besides the chemi- 
cal composition and the digestibility of the feeding stuffs ; the 
standards cannot be followed directly without regard to bulk 
and other properties of the fodder ; the ration must not be 
too bulky, and still must contain a sufficient quantity of rough- 
age to keep up the rumination of the animals, in case of cows 
and sheep, and to secure a healthy condition of the animals 
generally. The local market prices of cattle foods are of the 
greatest importance in determining which foods to buy ; the 
conditions in the different sections of our great continent differ 
so greatly in this respect that no generalizations can be made. 
Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds are the 
cheapest feeds in the South and the East, and flour-mill, 
brewery, and starch-factory refuse feeds the cheapest in the 
Northwest. 



14 AGRICULTURE. 



PRACTICAL. RATIONS FOR DAIRY COAVS. 

Fed by 16 American Dairymen Producing 325 lbs. of 
Butter or more per Cow per Year.* 

1. Colorado. — 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. clover 
hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. corn meal. 

2. Connecticut. — 35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 3 lbs. wheat 
bran, 3 lbs. corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. 
Chicago gluten meal. 

3. Illinois. — 71^ lbs. clover hay, 7^ lbs. timothy hay, 12 lbs. 
corn and cob-meal, 8 lbs. bran, i^ lbs. linseed meal, i^ lbs. 
cotton-seed meal. 

4. New Jersey. — 24 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. 
wheat bran, 4 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

5. Netv York. — 20 lbs. hay, 2 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal, 2 lbs. hominy meal. 

6. New York. — 12 lbs. timothy hay, i lb. wheat bran, i lb. 
middlings, 2 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 40 lbs. 
skim-milk. 

7. Neiv York. — 42 lbs. corn silage, i\ lbs. clover hay, i\ lbs. 
timothy hay, 8 lbs. corn and cob meal, 14 lbs, dried brewers' 
grains. 

8. North Carolina. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. fodder corn, 
3 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. wheat bran, i lb. cotton-seed meal. 

9. Pennsylvania. — 24 lbs. corn fodder, 5,1 lb. wheat bran, 
5.1 lbs, corn meal, 3 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

10. Pennsylvania. — 10 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. hay, 3^ lbs. 
wheat bran, \\ lbs. cotton-seed meal, i^ lbs. oil meal, 2| lbs. 
corn meal. 

11. Texas. — 30 lbs, corn silage, 13^ lbs. sorghum hay, 1,3 lbs. 
corn meal, 2.6 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2,2 lbs. cotton-seed, 1.3 lbs. 
wheat bran. 

12. Vermont. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 4.2 lbs. corn 
meal, 4.2 lbs. wheat bran, .8 lb, linseed meal. 

13. West Virginia. — 48 lbs. corn silage, 2\ lbs, corn and cob 
meal, 2\ lbs, ground wheat, 2| lbs. oats, 2| lbs, barley meal. 



* See Woll, "One Hundred American Rations for Dairy Cows," Bul- 
letin No. 38, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 



FEEDING STUFFS, 



15 



14. Wisconsin. — 26 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs, 
timothy hay, 8 lbs, wheat middlings, i\ lbs. oil meal. 

15. Wisconsin. — 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. sheaf oats, 5 lbs. 
corn fodder, i lb. clover hay, i lb. millet, 2.7 lbs. cotton-seed 
meal, 1.3 lbs. oil meal, 6 lbs. wheat bran. 

16. Canada. — 40 lbs. corn silage, 7^ lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. 
straw, li lbs. oats, i\ lbs. barley, i^ lbs. pea meal, 3 lbs. wheat 
bran, I lb. cotton-seed meal. 

The preceding rations contain approximately the following 
amounts of nutrients, calculated for 1000 lbs. live weight : 









Digestible. 








Organic 










Nutritive 


Na 










Matter. 




Carbo- 
hydrates. 






Ratio. 






Protein. 


Fat. 


Total. 






lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


X 


31.09 


2.70 


15.78 


.80 


19.28 




6-5 


2 


25.70 


2.69 


13.96 


•97 


17.62 




6.0 


3 


22.09 


2-37 


12.06 


.75 


15-18 




5.8 


4 


19.41 


2 06 


II. 71 


.87 


14.64 




6.5 


5 


26.19 


2.36 


13-78 


•79 


16.93 




6.6 


6 


25-73 


3-50 


14.05 


1. 12 


18.67 




4-7 


7 


31-30 


3-37 


16.31 


1-31 


20.99 




5-7 


8 


20.38 


1.79 


11.98 


.80 


14-57 




7-7 


9 


26.52 


2.53 


15 -74 


.90 


19.17 




7.0 


10 


20.05 


2.31 


11.00 


.72 


14-03 




5-4 


XI 


26.58 


2.21 


12.31 


1.30 


15-82 




6.9 


12 


24.23 


1.86 


14.03 


-75 


16.64 




8.4 


«3 


22.37 


1-54 


1415 


.72 


16.41 




10.2 


14 


31.00 


3.01 


j6.02 


.87 


19.90 




6.0 


15 


23-79 


2-73 


12.46 


.99 


16. i3 




5-4 


16 


22.96 


2.08 


12.17 


•71 


14-96 




6.6 



16 



AGRICULTURE. 



WEIGHT OF CONCENTRATED FEEDING STUFFS. 

(Alvokd.) 



Wheat, whole 

Cracked corn 

Gluten meal 

Cotton-seed meal . 

Corn meal 

Corn and cob meal 
Wheat middlings . 

Oats, whole 

Ground oats 

Wheat bran 



Half Bushel 
Weighs 


One Quart 


Weighs 


Pounds. 


Pounds, Ounces = 


Pounds. 


30 


I 14 


= 


1.83 


28 


I 12 


z= 


1-75 


26 


I 8 


= 


1.50 


25i 


I 9 


= 


1.56 


23i 


I 7 


z= 


1-43 


22 


I 6 


= 


1.38 


18 


I 2 


z=: 


113 


16 


I 


= 


1. 00 


12 


12 


= 


•75 


10 


10 


= 


.63 



FOOD REQUIKE»IENTS OF FARM ANIMALS. 

It is generally assumed in comparing the food require- 
ments of the different classes of farm animals that one cow 
at pasture will eat as much, or seven-tenths as much, daily 
as a full-grown horse, or as much as two yearling colts, 
heifers, or young bulls, or as three to five calves, or four 
colts taken from the mare, or ten to twelve sheep, or as 
twelve to twenty three-months-old lambs, or as four to five 
swine. It may be figured that the quantity of pasture grass 
eaten by a cow per day, which of course will vary with the 
season and the condition of the pasture, will equal 25-30 lbs. 
of good meadow hay or 40 lbs. hay of inferior quality. 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CATTLE FOODS. 

Comparing concentrated foods with coarse feeds, one 
pound of the former may be considered a food unit; the 
quantity of grass eaten by one cow at pasture during one 
day is assumed equivalent to 12 to 13 food units during 
the early part of the summer, and to 4 food units in the 
late fall, 10 units being considered an average figure. 

The following quantities of different feeding stuffs are 
considered approximately equivalent, as determined by 
European, largely Danish, feeding experience (Schroll): 



FEEDING STUFFS. 17 

I lb. concentrated feed (cereals, mill-refuse feeds, oil 
meals, etc.) = 2i^ to 3 lbs. of good meadow hay = 4 lbs. of 
poorer quality hay = 10 lbs. rutabagas = I2i lbs. turnips 
= 4 lbs. potatoes = 10 lbs. green fodder = 6 lbs. buttermilk 
= 6 lbs. skim-milk = 12 lbs. whey = i lb. new milk. 

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CATTLE FOODS. 

(H.i;CKER.) 

The following table is based upon the percentages of di- 
gestible protein in different feed stuffs, comparison of cost 
being made with wheat bran as a basis for grain, and timothy 
hay for coarse fodders. The figures given show only approx- 
imately the comparative value of the different food stuffs, as 
the digestible protein content, and not the total digestible 
matter of each food was considered in calculating the 
values. Since, however, protein is the most important 
component of foods bought, carbohydrates being, as a rule, 
produced in abundant quantities in the crops raised on the 
farm, the data obtained by this method of calculation may 
serve as a guide in estimating the comparative money 
value of cattle foods offered for sale. 



Feed Stuffs. 



Value per Ton or Bushel when 
W heal Braa is worth 



Barley $0.16 

Indian corn . 

Corn and cob meal 

Millet seed 

Oats 

Peas 

Rye 

Wheal shorts 

Wheat 

Cotton-seed meal 

Linseed meal 



0.40 
0.22 



0.24 

3.14 
9.S6 



^.18 
0.21 
0.18 



0.47 
0.24 
8.00 
0.25 
25.60 
22.08 



$12.00 


$16.00 


$0.22 


$0.30 


0.24 


0.32 


0.22 


0.30 


0.20 


0.34 


O.I4 


0.18 


0.56 


0.74 


0.28 


0.38 


9.60 


12.80 


0.30 


0.40 


30.72 


40.96 


! C6.5O 


35-32 



$0.36 
0.42 
o 36 

0.44 
.0.24 

O.Q4 

0.48 

16.00 
0.50 
51.20 
44.16 



Feed S'.uffs. 



Clover hay, red 

Corn stover 

Fodder corn 

Prairie hay (upland). 
Prairie hay un.xed;. 
Sedfje prass 



Value per Ton when Timothy i? worth 



?4-5o 

810.06 
2.65 
3-44 
4.63 
450 
450 



$6. 



S13.41 
3 53 
4.59 



6.17 
C.oo 
6.00 



^b.oo , Jio.oo 



SI7.88 
4.70 

6.12 

8. 



■23 



.00 



$22.33 
6.88 
7-65 
10.29 
10.00 
10 00 



18 



AGRICULTURE. 



PRICES OF CEREALS PER BUSHEL. AND PER 
TON. 











c^ 






, 




C^ 


Name. 







■cm 


^1 


Name. 





1 




f2s 

4) u 




fc. 


Cu 


cl -' 




U4 


^ 


a, — 




lbs. 




$ 


$ 




lbs. 




$ 


$ 


Wheat . 


60 


33-3 


.40 


13-33 


Oats... ... 


32 


62.5 


.18 


11.25 










45 


IS- 00 








20 


T2.50 










50 


16.67 








-25 


15.63 










60 


20.00 








-30 


18.75 










75 


25.00 








•35 


21.90 








I 


00 


33-33 








■ so 


3I-25 


Corn... 


56 


35-7 




30 
35 


10.71 
12.50 


Rye 


56 


35-7 


.40 
-50 


14 23 

17.85 










40 


14.28 


Barley 


48 


41.7 


.40 


16 68 










45 


16.06 








•50 


20.83 










50 


17-85 








.60 


25 02 



VALUATION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

The commercial value of protein, fat, and carbohydrates 
in concentrated feeding stuffs has been calculated from the 
average composition and market price of common feeding 
stuffs as follows: 



/—Cost of one pound of—, 
Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. 

In Germany. . .(i8go) 3: 2: i (Konig, Wolff.) 

" Connecticut (18S8) 1.6 cts. 4.2 cts. .96 cts. (Jenkins.) 



Delaware. 



(1890)1.4 
.(1889)1.23 



Wisconsin. .(1891) 1.5 



ndiana 



.(1891) i.o 



New Jersey. (189I) .91 
Minnesota.. (1893) 3. 1 
Vermont (1895) 2.02 



2.9 
4-45 
3.6 
2.75 
5.91 
3-1 
- .19 



1.4 

.52 

.5 

.63 
1. 12 

.24 

.91 



(Penny.) 

(Woll.) 

(Huston.) 

(Voorhees.) 

(Hays.) 

(Hills efa/,) 



FARM ANIMALS. 19 



11. FARM ANIMALS. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BREEDS OF LIVE 
STOCK. 

By Prof. J. A. Craig, of Iowa Agricultural College. 

I. Light Horses. 

The Thoroughbred. — Leading characteristics: running speed 
(Salvator, 1:351, holds the world's mile record), quality, stam- 
ina, and ambition. Common colors : brown, bay, chestnut. 
Distinctive features : refined appearance, lengthy neck, deep 
chest, long body, straight croup, long thighs and pasterns, 
dense bone, firm muscle, active temperament, rangy type 
standing 16 hands. Most common defects : light bodies, 
lengthy pasterns, long legs, irritable temperament. Bred 
principally for racing, which has given them endurance and 
spirit. They are suited for mating with mares weighing 11 to 
12 cwt., with the object of producing strong drivers or stylish 
carriage and saddle horses. 

The American Trotter. — Chief characteristics : speed at the 
trotting gait. World's record for one mile against time is that 
of Alix, 2:o3f. The type of the leading campaigners is that 
towards which the trotter is tending; it is that of a horse re- 
quired to have the endurance, ambition, and conformation to 
maintain trotting speed. Most general features: intelligent 
heads, light necks, low deep chests, oblique shoulders, long 
forearm, short cannons, round body rising slightly over loin, 
long croup and thighs, low hocks. Most common defects: 
undersize, deficiency in style, finish, and substance. Sphere ; 
coach or carriage horses, roadsters, and trotters. 



20 AGRICULTURE. 

Cleveland Bay. — Uniform in color, being bay with black 
points. They stand at least i6 hands and are horses of larger 
size and more power than those of most other breeds of light 
horses. Rough joints, coarse bone, and deficiency in actior are 
their most common defects. Their size, power, and evenness 
of disposition adapt them for general work on light farms, 
but owing to the defects mentioned they are not as popular for 
breeding road and carriage horses as those of other breeds. 

French Coach. — Smooth, symmetrical, and generally of fine 
quality ; very graceful in movement, with high knee-action and 
good back-action. Heads intelligent looking ; necks graceful, 
bodies snugly ribbed, and quarters muscular. As a rule, they 
are striking in appearance, being upstanding and high-headed. 
Common colors : bay, brown, and black. Best suited for 
breeding coach-horses with moderately fast and graceful action. 
Defects : coarseness and lack of prepotency in the stallions due 
to their mixed breeding. 

Hackney. — The typical hackney is a horse of extreme 
smoothness, with gracefully curved outlines. The head is 
light, neck muscular and curved, but free from heaviness ; 
shoulders smooth and laid well back ; body circular, compact, 
short ; hips smooth ; quarters plump with muscle ; legs short, 
with tendons clearly defined. Their action is noted for its grace- 
fulness and stylishness, being very high in the forelegs, and the 
hock movement is regular. Common colors : bay and brown. 
They are usually about 15.3 hands. Best suited for production 
of high-stepping cab and coach horses for city driving. 

II. Heavy Horses. 

Clydesdale. — Usual colors: bay, brown, black, or chestnut with 
white markings. The head is intelligent in features, but some- 
times out of proportion with the other parts. Shoulder excep- 
tionally good ; being sloping, it gives them a free, easy, and 
long stride in the walk or trot ; arm well-muscled, and legs 
clean and flat, with the fine and long feather springing from 
the edge ; pasterns sloping, easing the feet from concussion.' 



FAEM ANIMALS. 



M 



feet large and durable. The croup is muscular and the quarters 
especially heavily-muscled. Their combination of weight, 
quality, and action is exceptional in draught-horses. 

SJiire. — The best type is low, broad, and stout. They are 
heavily built, muscular, with heavy bone and slow movement. 
The shoulder is usually too upright, making the action too 
short and stilted. The body is of large girth, deep and 
strongly coupled, with broad, short back and heavily-muscled 
quarters. Deficiencies : lack of quality, sluggish temperament, 
and limited action. In general they are heavier than the 
Clydesdale, though there is little difference between representa- 
tive animals. The best type is suitable for breeding the 
heaviest class of draught-horses adapted to slow work demand- 
ing strength and heavy weight. 

Percheron. — Types : the original gray in color, and the 
modern of black color. Most peculiar characteristics of the 
former were their action, style, endurance, and strength. They 
had intelligent heads, prominent chests, round bodies, large 
bone, inclined to roundness. The modern type is shorter- 
legged, more compact and stouter, but lacking the size of the 
original. The Percheron's excellencies are seen in their active 
temperament, intelligent heads, crested neck, deep body, and 
wide croup. Their deficiencies appear in defective legs, being 
light or round, straight pasterns^ feet narrow at the hoof, heads 
and quarters lacking muscle. Best type adapted for breeding 
energetic, quick-gaited, strong horses suited for draught work 
of light nature. 

Suffolk. — Color uniform, being some shade of chestnut. 
They are low-set, short-legged, deep-bodied, muscular horses, 
with clean bone and durable feet ; docile, easy keepers, and 
steady when working. General deficiency: a lack of weight due 
to their smaller size in comparison with other draught-horses. 
Suited for general farm labor ; they are not the highest-priced 
horses on the market owing lo the demand for heavier weights. 



33 AGRICULTURE. 

III. Beef Cattle.* 

' Short-horns. — The three family types are: Bates, Booth, and 
Cruikshank. Bates, noted for style, fine heads, clean necks, 
straight level backs, light bone, and combination of milk and 
beefing qualities. Booths are especially excellent in girth, wide 
backs, lengthy quarters, deep flesh, and beefing qualities, though 
lacking in finish and style. Cruikshanks, noted for scale ; low, 
broad, deep forms, heavy flesh, and mossy coats. The short- 
horn breed is specially noted for beef form, early maturity, and 
thrift under a variety of conditions. Their weakness in con- 
stitution and sterility is traceable to in-and-in breeding and 
artificial treatment. Their chief utility is to give beef form, 
quality, and rapid fattening tendencies to grades for stall feed- 
ing. Some families possess unequalled combination of beefing 
and milking qualities. 

Aberdeen Angns. — Characteristic color, black. Head, 
hornless ; neck free from loose skin, exceptionally good 
shoulder-vein ; shoulder oblique, fitting close to body ; ribs 
deep, very circular ; hips moderately far apart, smoothly 
curved ; rump long, level, smooth ; thighs muscular, twist low 
and full, quarters long and rounded. Type : cylindrical, dis- 
tinguished for smoothness, symmetry and quality ; bone light, 
hide mellow, and coated with fine black hair. They are pre- 
potent and prolific. Chief utility, production of beef of high 
quality. 

Hereford. — Most popular color, dark claret or cherry, with 
white face, belly, switch, and small strip of white on neck and 
over shoulder. Type: low-set and broad; heavy in fore- 
quarters, with low heads ; full, deep chest ; hanging dewlap, 
level lack, wide thick loin, full quarters and thin thighs. 
Worst deficiencies, looseness in build and rough, coarse bone. 
They are strong-constitutioned, active rangers, prepotent and 
long-lived. Being active, hardy, and good feeders they make 
good grazing cattle, and on that account have been popular on 
ranches. 

Galloway. — Color black, no white admissible, except on 

* For description of breeds of dairy cattle, see Part II, Dairying, 



I*AKM AKIMALS. 23 

udder or below underline. Type: thick, close to ground, and 
symmetrical ; hair long, wavy, and thick ; head large, horn- 
less, with no scurs ; neck strong, giving a burly appearance 
to forequarters ; shoulders snug, legs short and heavy, barrel 
round, tight-ribbed ; quarter long and smooth ; flesh even over 
all parts; hardiness and strength of constitution, strong feat- 
ures. Require more time to mature and yield larger percentage 
of offal than most other breeds. They are liked as ranch 
cattle, as they are hardy, hornless, and yield excellent beef and 
robes. 

IV. Fine-wooled Sheep. 

Merino. — The two types include those wrinkled and those 
smooth in body. They are chiefly noted for the heavy weights 
of fine wool that they shear. The fleece is dense, even, ex- 
tending over all regions. The wool is bright, soft, fine, lustrous, 
and pure. They are hardy and strong in constitution, of a quiet 
disposition, and do well in large flocks. 

"V. Mutton Sheep. 

Southdown. — Symmetrical, compact, close to the ground, and 
of fine quality ; head medium size, hornless ; forehead and 
face covered with wool, ears small, face brown or gray tint, 
neck short, breast broad, back and loin wide and straight, body 
deep, hips wide, twist full, fleece dense, and medium in length 
and fineness. The mutton is of high quality, and lambs mature 
early. They represent an exceptional combination of wool and 
mutton of fine quality. 

Shropshire. — Face and legs dark brown in color. They are 
symmetrical and stylish. Rams are required to weigh 225 lbs. 
in full flesh, and ewes 175 lbs. Head short, covered with wool, 
hornless; neck well attached, full; body circular, round ribbed; 
quarters lengthy, inclined to narrowness and slackness. The 
fleece dense, fibre strong, about three and one half inches in 
length. The ewes are prolific and kind nurses. They combine 
quality and quantity of wool and mutton in a high degree, and 
are adapted to conditions of general farming and rolling land. 

Hampshire. — Color of face dark brown or black; head large, 
nose prominent, neck regular, taper from head to shoulder; 



24 AGRICULTURE. 

strong-boned ana lengthy. Especially noted for early develop- 
ment of lambs. They are vigorous and prepotent. The wool 
is short, dense, strong, and slightly coarse. 

Suffolk. — Faces and legs deep black color. They are large 
sheep when mature ; lengthy and straight in form. Noted 
chiefly for prolificness and good milking and nursing qualities. 
A large percentage of lambs are reared in flocks of this breed; 
wool medium in quality and length. 

Oxfo7'd. — Face either brown or gray, and lengthy. When 
mature they are the heaviest of the Down breeds, being larger in 
size and heavier in bone. Their fleece is also heavier and the 
fibre longer, coarser, and more open than most others. Squarer 
in form than the Shropshires, and not so closely covered with 
wool. Adapted to strong land; respond readily to high feeding. 

Leicester. — Face bare and pure white, body square, straight, 
forequarters exceptionally full, hindquarters rounded slightly. 
Offal is light, bone fine, but fat too plentiful. The Border 
type is stronger boned, heavier, and more vigorous than the 
English. The Leicester has been extensively used for crossing 
on grades. Wool lustrous, live or six inches long, soft, but 
too frequently open and absent on the belly. 

Cotswold. — Face white or slightly mixed with gray. Form 
large, square, upstanding, and stylish. A tuft of wool grows 
from forehead; fleece open, long, and heavily yielding. Body 
long, level, and wide. The gray-faced strain is considered 
hardier than the white-faced. The popularity of the breed lies 
in the large yield of wool and of mutton, though the quality of 
both is deficient. 

Lincoln. — The largest of the long-wooled breeds. The wool 
is long and coarse, and especially lustrous. Square in form 
and, when mature, very heavy. The mutton lacks quality. 

Cheviot. — Face bare, white, hornless; wool fine, and the 
fleece dense and even. Mutton agreeably flavored and fine- 
grained. They are hardy, active, prolific, and the lambs come 
active. They clip about four pounds of fine wool. Adapted to 
rough and high pasturage. 

Dorset. — Face white ; rams and ewes horned. Type : long, 
round-bodied, and compactly built. Wool medium in length, 
fineness, and weight; average clip 6 pounds. Chief character- 



FARM ANIMALS. 



S5 



istics: prolificness, hardiness, and breeding early, so as to drop 
Iambs in winter. 

Highland. — Rams and ewes horned, face and legs black and 
white. Low and blocky in type ; fleece long, coarse. Their 
mutton has a superior flavor. Mountain breed hardy, active, 
and very strong of constitution. 

VI. Swine. 

Berkshire. — Color black, white on face, feet, tip of tail. Face 
short, dished; ears sharp-pointed, erect; jaws full, back broad, 
straight, full over shoulder ; loin thick, level ; hams excep- 
tionally full, legs short, strong, and straight. Sows prolific, 
good nurses. Active and vigorous in temperament. 

Poland-China. — Color dark, spotted, or black; head small, 
slightly dished; ears drooping, girth full, ribs well sprung, deep; 
hindquarters lengthy, though inclined to be drooping. They 
fatten readily, reach heavy weights, and are quiet-dispositioned. 

Yorkshire. — White in color; separated into large, middle, and 
small varieties. The first-mentioned, are strong-boned, long- 
bodied, and deep-sided, and have mixed meat; middle or im- 
proved type, lighter in weight and bone, with smaller quantity 
of offal ; small variety, quick in maturing and compact in 
form. 

Chester- White. — White in color, strong-boned, vigorous, and 
attain to very heavy weights, though slow in maturing. Sows 
of good disposition and breeding qualities. 

Duroc-Jerseys. — Deep, cherry red in color, large size, good 
breeders, and liked in Southern countries because of ability to 
withstand heat. 

Victoria. — White in color with occasional black spots on skin; 
head small, face slightly dished ; skin free from scurf ; flesh 
of good quality and evenly laid over body. Yearling boars 
should weigh not less than 300 lbs. 

Tamworth. — Red or dark brown color ; snout very long, 
body narrow, exceptionally deep and long in sides. Their 
form and the mixture of fat and lean in their flesh make them 
a special bacon hog. 

Essex. — Color black; type : small, compact, early ma-uring, 
and yielding a large percentage of edible meat. 



^6 AGRiCtTlTtBH. 

DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF FARM 
ANIMALS BY THEIR TEETH, 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

Horse. — The horse has 24 temporary teeth. The male 
has 40 permanent teeth, the female 36 or 40. The smaller 
number is more usual in females, due to the lack of the tusks. 
The temporary teeth consist of 12 incisors and 12 molars; 
the 4 center front teeth, 2 above and 2 below, arc called 
pinchers ; the next 4 are called intermediate or lateral, and 
the next 4 corner teeth. The permanent teeth consist of 12 
incisors, 4 tusks, and 24 molars. The dental star is a 
yellowish ring appearing next the enamel on the table or 
crown of the tooth. The following table shows approxi- 
mately the changes of the teeth with age : 

3 to 10 days: Temporary pinchers and 3 molars cut. 

40 to 60 days : Temporary intermediates or laterals cut. 

6 to 9 months : Temporary corner teeth cut. 

19 to 25 months : Leveling of temporary corner teeth. 
i\ to 3 years: Pinchers replaced by permanent teeth. 
'i\ to 4 years : Intermediates or laterals replaced. 

4 to 4| years : Tusks cut. 

4^ to 5 years : Corner teeth replaced. 

5 to 6 years : Leveling of lower pinchers. 

7 years : Leveling of permanent intermediates. 

8 years : Dental star and notches in pinchers. 

9 years : Dental star in intermediates. 

10 years : Dental star in corner teeth. 

Cattle. — Cattle have 20 temporary and 32 permanent teeth. 
The temporary are 8 incisors in the lower jaw and 12 
molars. The permanent teeth are 8 incisors and 24 molars. 
Cattle have no incisors in the upper jaw. The table for 
cattle is as follows : 

At birth : Temporary incisors appear. 

5 to 6 months : Teeth decayed on border, 

6 to 7 months : Leveling of pinchers. 

12 months : Leveling of first intermediates. 
15 months : Leveling of the second intermediates. 
jS months : Intermediate incisors become stumps. 



^aUm animals. ^1 

2 years : Permanent pinchers cut. 

2\ to 3 years : Permanent first intermediates cut. 
3| years : Second intermediates or laterals cut. 

4 years : Corner teeth replaced. 

5 to 6 years : Leveling of permanent pinchers. 

7 years : Leveling of first intermediates. 

8 years : Leveling of second intermediates. 

9 years : Leveling of corner teeth. 

ID to 12 years: Dental star in pinchers and intermediates. 
13 years : Dental star in corner teeth. 

Sheep. — Sheep have 20 temporary and 32 permanent 
teeth. The table for changes is as follows : 

1 month : Milk incisors appear. 

3 months : Milk incisors decayed on border. 
15 months : Permanent incisors cut. 

2 years : First permanent intermediates cut. 

33 months : Second permanent intermediates cut. 
40 months : Corner teeth cut. 

Hogs. — Hogs have 28 temporary and 44 permanent teeth. 
The table for changes is as follows : 

At birth : Temporary corner incisors cut. 

I to 2 months : Temporary central incisors cut. 

3 months : Temporary lateral incisors cut. 

9 to 12 months : Permanent corner incisors cut. 
12 to 15 months : Permanent central incisors cut. 
18 to 20 months : Permanent lateral incisors cut. 



28 



AGRICULTURE. 



BODY TEMPERATURE OF FARM ANIMALS. 



(Dammann.) 



Deg. F. 

Horse 99.5-101.3 

Cattle 100.4-103.1 

Sheep 101.3-105.8 



Deg. F. 

Swine loi. 3-104.0 

Dog 99. 5-103. 1 



The temperature is greater after exercise than after rest, 
and in the evening, as a rule, 0.2-1.1" F. higher than in the 
morning. 



DURATION AND FREQUENCY OF HEAT IN 
FARM ANIMALS. (Wolff.) 





In Heat for 


If not Impreg-- 

nated, Heat will 

Recur after 


After Coming In, 

Heat will 

Recur after 


Mares . . .... 


5-7 days 

r-i "■ 

2-4 " 


3-4 weeks 
3-4 " 
17-28 days 
9-12 " 


5-9 days 
21-28 '• 


Cows 




Sheep 


4-5 weeks* 





* 8-9 weeks at the latest. 



FARM ANIMALS. 



29 



GESTATION CAI.ENDAR. 

Average Gestation Period. 

Mares, 481^ weeks (340 days, extremes 307 and 412 days). 

ti " ). 



Cows, 


40^ 


' (283 


Ewes, 


22 


' (150 


Sows, 


16 


' (112 



240 

146 

log 



Time 


of 


Mares. 


Cows, 


Ewes, 


Sows, 


Service. 


340 Days. 


283 Days. 


150 Days. 


112 Days. 


Jan. 


I 


Dec, 6 


Oct. 10 


May 30 


April 22 


" 


6 


" II 


" 15 


June 4 


" 27 


" 


II 


" 16 


" 20 


9 


May 3 


" 


16 


" 21 


" 25 


14 


'' 7 


" 


21 


" 26 


30 


19 


12 


" 


26 


" 31 


Nov. 4 


" 24 


'' 17 


" 


31 


Jan. 5 


9 


" 29 


22 


Feb. 


5 


" 10 


" 14 


July 4 


" 27 


" 


10 


" 15 


" 19 


9 


June I 


" 


15 


" 20 


24 


14 


6 


" 


20 


'; 25 


^' ^9 


\\ '9 


" II 


" 


25 


30 


Dec. 4 


" 24 


" 16 


Mar. 


2 


Feb. 4 


9 


" 29 


" 21 




7 


9 


14 


Augr. 3 


" 26 


" 


12 


" 14 


" J9 




July I 


" 


17 


!! '9 


24 


" 13 


6 


" 


22 


24 


29 


-' 18 


" II 


" 


27 


Mar. I 


Jan. 3 


" 23 


" 16 


Apri 


J 


6 


8 


" 28 


" 21 




6 


" II 


" 13 


Sept. 2 


" 26 


" 


II 


" 16 


" 18 


'^ 7 


" 31 


" 


16 


" 21 


" 23 


" 12 


Aug. 5 


" 


21 


'• 26 


" 28 


" 17 


ID 


•' 


26 


" 31 


Feb. 2 


" 22 


" 15 


May 


I 


April 5 


'' 7 


" 27 


" 20 


" 


6 


" 10 


12 


Oct. 2 


\\ ^ 


'* 


II 


\\ '5 


17 


7 


^0 


" 


16 


20 


" 22 


12 


Sept. 4 


" 


21 


" 25 


,." ^7 


" 17 


9 


" 


26 


" 30 


Mar. 4 


" 22 


14 


" 


31 


May 5 


9 


" 27 


" 19 


June 


5 


" 10 


" 14 


Nov. I 


" 24 


" • 


10 


" 15 


" 19 


6 


" 29 


" 


15 


" 20 


" 24 


" II 


Oct. 4 


" 


20 


" 25 


" 2Q 


" 16 


9 


" 


25 


•' 30 


April 3 


" 21 


" 14 


" 


30 


June 4 


8 


" 26 


" 19 


July 


5 


" 9 


" 13 


Dec. I 


" 24 




10 


14 


" 18 


6 


" 29 


" 


15 


" 19 


" 23 


" II 


Nov. 3 




20 


24 


" 28 


•• '^ 


8 



30 



AGEICULTUKE. 



GESTATION 


CALENDAR.— ( Continued.) 


Time of 


Mares, 


Cows, 


Ewes, 


Sows, 


Service. 


340 Days. 


283 Days. 


150 Days. 


112 Days, 


July 25 


June 2Q 


May 3 


Dec. 21 


Nov. 13 


*' 30 


July 4 


8 


'• 26 


" 18 


Aug. 4 


'' 9 


" 13 


" 31 


" 23 


9 


14 


" 18 


Jan. 5 


" 28 


" 14 


'' 19 


" 23 


" 10 


Dec. 3 


!! '9 


24 


" 28 


'' 15 


" 8 


" 24 


" 29 


June 2 


20 


" 13 


29 


Aug. 3 


7 


" 25 


" 18 


Sept. 3 


8 


" 12 


" 30 


" 23 


8 


" 13 


" V 


Feb. 4 


" 28 


!! ^3 


" 18 


" 22 


9 


Jan. 2 


" 18 


" 23 


" 27 


" 14 


7 


!! ^3 


" 28 


July 2 


19 


" 12 


" 28 


Sept. 2 


7 


" 24 


" 17 


Oct. 3 


" 7 


" 12 


Mar. I 


" 22 


" 8 


" J2 


" 17 


6 


" 27 


" 13 


" 17 


" 22 


" II 


Feb. 1 


" 18 


22 


" 27 


" 16 


6 


" 23 


^" ^7 


Aug. I 


" 21 


" II 


" 28 


Oct. 2 


6 


" 26 


" 16 


Nov. 2 


7 


" II 


" 31 


" 21 


" 7 


" 12 


" 16 


April 5 


" 26 


" 12 


!' ^7 


" 21 


" 10 


Mar. 3 


'' 17 


" 22 


" 26 


" 15 


" 8 


' 22 


" 27 


" 31 


'• 20 


" 13 


" 28 


Nov. I 


Sept. 5 


" 25 


" 18 


Dec. 2 


6 


" [O 


" 30 


" 23 


7 


" 11 


" 15 


May 5 


" 28 


" 12 


" i6 


" 20 


10 


April 2 


" T7 


" 21 


" 25 


^5 


" 7 


" 2 J 


" 26 


" 30 


20 


12 


" 27 


Dec. I 


Oct. s 


" 25 


!! ^7 


" 31 


5 


9 


" 29 


21 



FARM ANIMALS. 31 

FEEDING AND GENERAL CARE OF POULTRY. 

By Prof. Wm. P. Wheeler, of N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station. 

Of the kinds of land birds and of water fowls under do- 
mestication the common "barnyard" fowls, of one general 
type, but of countless individual variations, and their thor- 
oughbred varieties, are those usually thought of when the 
subject of poultry is mentioned, and these are the fowls of 
most general practical interest. It is remarkable that the 
common fowl, although so widely bred, and for so long, in 
Europe and America has no distinctive English name. 

Ducks, turkeys, and geese constitute greater or smaller 
portions of the market poultry according to the particular 
locality and season, but the common fowl, besides produc- 
ing most of the table poultry, is almost alone called upon 
for the egg supply. 

The relative prices of eggs and market poultry, the 
proximity of markets, as well as the prices of foods, deter- 
mine the relative profit in keeping larger or smaller breeds, 
even with eggs as the special object. The meat value of 
every fowl is of consideration sooner or later, and while 
the smaller hens will produce eggs cheaper, the greater 
net profit from hatching to market per hen may be with 
the larger breed. 

Most of the thoroughbred varieties have their character- 
istics fairly established, so that it is better business policy 
to employ them rather than the uncertain mongrels, which, 
besides their unknown capabilities, are not less likely to 
suffer from long and careless inbreeding. The fancier who 
is fitted by judgment and experience to inbreed his stock 
closely will know how far he can go with safety; but one 
who finds it necessary to inquire about the advisability of 
inbreeding had better not attempt any. 

Among the breeds that lay white-shelled eggs. Ham- 
burgs, when of vigorous ancestry, probably are the most 
prolific. They certainly are exceptional layers, although 
the size of the egg is small. The Hamburg varieties pos- 
sess in unusual degree the thoroughbred characteristics. 
Occasional complaints have been made in recent years con- 
cerning their stamina. 



32 AGEICULTURE. 

For egg production the Leghorns are typical fowls, and 
where white-shelled eggs are wanted the Leghorn varieties 
are more widely kept than any others. 

The Minorcas, other members of the Mediterranean class, 
excel the Leghorns in size of eggs, but do not equal them 
in number. 

Some strains and varieties of Pit Games are not far from 
the Leghorn in prolificacy. 

Of the French breeds the Houdan is most widely bred 
in this country, and for such an excellent table fowl, is an 
exceptional layer of large white eggs. 

The Polish, often wonderful layers, have sometimes 
suffered in vigor because of their beauty, which admirers 
hesitate to risk marring by introduction of distant blood. 

Of the Asiatics, which lay brown-shelled eggs, the Lang- 
shan is high in favor with practical poultrymen. The 
Brahma, the largest of the thoroughbreds, also ranks high 
and lays large eggs. Those strains, however, bred for 
early laying are usually much inferior in size to the stand- 
ard birds. The Cochin varieties are more particularly the 
pride of the fancier than of the farmer. 

Of the American breeds the Plymouth Rock is un- 
doubtedly the most popular. Its type of plumage pos- 
sesses an unusual strength, even in blood much diluted, 
and faint reflections of the blue barring are seen in very 
distant relatives of the thoroughbred. The perfect mark- 
ings of the showroom bird are, however, quickly lost. The 
American breeds lay brown-shelled eggs. Different flocks 
vary as much as the breeds or varieties in productiveness. 

Many other breeds and varieties recognized by the 
American Poultry Association are of considerable economic 
value, but are less commonly kept. 

In feeding most farm animals the usual purpose is only 
to secure meat, wool, milk, or work, and not always is con- 
sideration necessarily given to the breeding condition and 
the breeding season. When poultry is kept for other than 
fancy purposes, the life of the individual fowl is so short 
that there is not only an annual necessity of growing 
young birds with several more or less complete sets of 



FARM ANIMALS. 33 

plumage, but egg production virtually implies a continual 
breeding condition, for the ultimate constituents of the egg 
are, with the exception of the amount obtained from the 
air, all that are combined in the living chick. 

The body of a Leghorn pullet, about nine months old, in 
active laying, contains about 55.4 per cent of water, 21.2 
per cent of different nitrogenous constituents, 18.0 per 
cent of fat, 3.0 per cent of ash or mineral matter, and 2.0 
per cent of other substances, including also a little water 
lost in manipulation. Leghorn hens almost two years old 
and laying, shoAved an average composition of 55.7 per 
cent water, 21.6 per cent nitrogenous matter, 17.0 per cent 
of fat, 3.8 per cent ash constituents, and 1.7 per cent other 
substances. The body of a mature capon is composed of 
about 41.6 per cent of water, 19.4 per cent nitrogenous 
matter, 33.9 per cent fat, 3.7 per cent ash, and 1.4 per cent 
other substances. 

Notwithstanding the fact that the problem of poultry 
feeding is much more complex than that of feeding most 
other farm stock, fewer carefully collected data are avail- 
able in formulating feeding standards for poultry than for 
cattle. The following rations for laying hens are, how- 
ever, near the average of those that have given best 
results. They are stated at the rate per 1000 lbs. live 
weight, to compare with the standards which have been 
used in feeding other animals. 

One thousand pounds live weight of laying hens, of 
about three pounds average weight, require from 65 to 70 
pounds of total food, less bulky than that for the cow, or 
about 52 pounds water-free food, per day, containing about 
9 pounds digestible protein, 20 pounds digestible nitrogen- 
free extract and fiber, and 4 pounds of fat. From this ra- 
tion the hens would produce generally from 16 to 31 pounds 
of eggs containing from 5.2 lbs. to 9.8 lbs. dry matter, one 
pound of eggs being produced from about 3.4 lbs. water- 
free food, one pound of dry matter of eggs for each 8,8 lbs. 
water-free food. 

For one thousand pounds live weight of hens of about 
six pounds average weight, there should be fed from 40 to 



34' AGRICULTURE. 

50 lbs. of food per day, containing about 34 pounds of 
water-free food. There should be in this about 6 pounds 
of digestible protein, 14 pounds of digestible nitrogen-free 
extract and fiber, and 2 pounds of digestible fat. 

Per hen the amount of food required per day varies 
according to the size and somewhat with the season. A 
smaller hen will eat more in proportion to live weight than 
a larger one. The difference in amount of food consumed 
by larger and smaller hens is less when laying than at other 
times, when enough for maintenance only need be eaten. 

A Cochin or Brahma hen when laying requires about 4i 
ounces of food per day, of which 3J ounces is water-free 
food. A hen of Leghorn size when laying requires about 3^ 
ounces of total food, or 2f ounces of water-free food, per day. 

A much larger amount of food in proportion to the live 
weight is required by the chicks than by the older fowls. 
The amount of water-free food required for every one 
hundred pounds live weight fed is 10.6 lbs. at about one 
pound average weight; at two pounds 7.5 lbs.; at three 
pounds 6.4 lbs; at four pounds 5.5 lbs.; at five pounds 5.3 
lbs.; at six pounds 4.9 lbs.; at seven pounds 4.7 lbs.; at 
eight pounds 4 lbs.; at nine pounds 3.3 lbs.; at ten pounds 
average live weight 3.2 lbs. The amounts of fresh food 
equivalent to these weights would be correspondingly 
greater. These are the amounts taken by growing fowls 
which normally attain to the higher weights given, and 
which are still immature and growing rapidly when at five 
and six pounds average weight. 

For young chicks the nutritive ratio of the ration fed 
can be somewhat narrower than those given for laying 
hens, and for fattening the ration can have a very much 
wider ratio, although only for short periods. 

For one hundred hens about 16 quarts of clean water 
per day is required, especially in dry hot weather. In 
each dozen eggs there is about a pint of water. 

A Variety of Food is Essential. 

Young hens, especially of the better laying breeds, when 
jn full laying, can be freely fed all they will readily e^t, bu. 



FARM ANIMALS. 35 

older hens and the young ones when not laying should be 
fed only enough to keep them eager for food. 

Salt should be fed mixed with the food, but not large 
coarse crystals. One ounce of salt per day for one hun- 
dred hens is a good proportion. 

Animal food and green or succulent vegetable food, as 
well as grain, should always be fed to hens that are con- 
fined. It is very important that ducks should have these 
foods, especially growing ducklings. 

Some form of grit should be liberally supplied. 

A largely grain ration will not contain the lime required 
by laying hens, and oyster-shells or some other form of 
carbonate of lime will supply this deficiency. 

A grass run is better than any substitute in summer, but no 
run should contain hens in such number as to kill the grass. 

Common fowls, especially laying hens, must be kept in 
moderately small flocks. Where large numbers are kept, 
they should be divided in small lots in separate pens and 
yards. Ten to twenty in a pen give better results than 
larger numbers. The laying hens should be kept sepa- 
rated from those not laying. 

Hens will not always moult early enough to resume lay- 
ing before midwinter. Chicks should be hatched in March 
and April if eggs are to be obtained from the pullets in 
November. Asiatics, to begin laying in the fall, should 
be hatched in February and March. 

The best results in egg production cannot be secured 
where the average space of open run available per hen is 
much less than lOO square feet. The average floor-space 
per hen indoors should be about 20 square feet. 

Exercise is of the utmost importance, especially for lay- 
ing and breeding stock, and a good way to assure this in 
winter-time is to scatter the grain in straw or any clean 
and dry substitute. 

Dampness is fatal, and dry warm houses free from 
draughts are essential in winter. The floors should be of 
dry earth or fine gravel, or wooden floors covered with 
straw or dry sand. The houses should be warm enough 
to prevent freezing of water, but should not be warmed by 
healing apparatus more than will insure against freezing. 



36 



AGRICULTURE. 



SYNOPSIS OF BREEDS OF POULTRY. 

(M. Lemoine.) 



Breeds. 



Andalusian 

Brahma (liijht) 

Cochin (buff) 

Creve Coeur 

Dorking (silver gray) 

(dark) 

Game 

Hambiirgs (silver spangled) . . . 
(golden pencilled). 

Houdan 

La Fleche 

Langshan 

Leghorn (brown) 

Minorca (black) 

Plymouth Rock 

Scotch Gray . . . 

Wyandottes 



29I4 

2814 

24 

33 

^iVi 

27}^ 

24 

20I4 

,9H 

26 

■29)4 

27 

22 

281^ 

27^ 

29 

25 



^ 




r3 


be . 


o^-^ 


c "J 


!l 


isl 




■p 


^^.o 


IJCCO 


lbs. 


lb. oz. 


lb. oz. 


5- 6 


3 I 


2 J5 


8-10 


4 11 


5 


8-10 


4 9 


5 4% 


8-9 


4 9Mi 


4 UM 


7-10 


5 4^ 


4 14 


6- q 


5 4 


3 12 


5- 6 


3 ^5V2 


2 7^4 


4- 5 


2 sVo 


2 7^4 


3^-4 


1 I5=M 


2 7^ 


6- 7 


3 7 


2 10I4 


6- 7 


3 sH 


2 9% 


7-10 


4 '4% 


5 1^ 


5-6 


3 'SJ^ 


2 10I4 


5^-7 






6- 73^ 






6 


3 4li 


2 12 


5V^-7 







CJ^ 



oz. 
6^4 
9^ 
17^^ 
7}^ 
6% 
61^ 
4\Z 
414 
4^ 
6% 
6% 
7% 
4% 



6M 



HEREDITY. 

By Prof. Thos. Shaw, of Minnesota Experiment Station. 

Heredity in breeding relates to transmission. It is 
doubtless governed by fixed laws, but many of these are 
as yet imperfectly understood. It may be defined as the 
outcome of the operation of that law whereby properties 
and qualities of like kind with those of the parents are 
transmitted to the offspring. This transmission is cer- 
tainly comprehensive in its character, since it relates to 
structure, function and qualities, and indeed to every 
feature of the organization. But in instances not a few 
there are apparent exceptions to this law of transmission. 
These, however, are apparent rather than real. They 
appear to us as exceptions because of the limitations of 
our knowledge of this great question. These supposed 
exceptions are doubtless the result of the predominant in- 
fluence of other laws acting in opposition to the hereditary 
tendency, and it is characterized as normal, abnormal, 
and acquired, according to its nature. 



FARM ANIMALS. 37 

The heredity of normal characters means the transmis- 
sion of those characters which are natural to the type. 
These may be original traits bestowed upon the species, 
as for instance, timidity in sheep; or they may have been 
acquired and rendered permanent by long-continued trans- 
mission, as in the changed form of all the improved breeds 
of domestic animals. The heredity of abnormal characters 
means the transmission of irregular characters, or those 
which have deviated from the natural and acquired char- 
acteristics of the type. These abnormal characters may 
appear as malformations of structure, derangement of 
function, or they may assume one or the other of various 
forms of disease. Illustrations of the first are found in 
certain families with an irregular number of fingers and 
toes; of the second in the inheritance of deafness, dumb- 
ness and impaired vision; and of the third, in the reap- 
pearance in the offspring of certain diseases possessed by 
the parents, as, for instance, any of the forms of scrofula 

The laws which govern heredity are those also which 
determine the results in practical breeding. In practice 
the rules which govern it are almost entirely empirical in 
their origin, since they have been almost exclusively de- 
rived from the accepted methods of the most successful 
breeders. Those who have given thought to the question 
will concede that breeding live-stock is at once a science 
and an art. They will see in it a science in so far as it 
discovers and systematically arranges those truths and 
principles which relate to the improvement of live-stock, 
and it will appear to them an art in so far as they perceive 
that those principles can be successfully utilized in prac- 
tice. It is apparent therefore that the relation between the 
science and the art of breeding is both close and intimate. 
Without some knowlege of the former the latter is not 
likely to be successfully practised, and the measure of 
success which attends the efforts of the breeder will be 
largely proportionate to the measure of the knowledge 
which he may possess of the principles of heredity. 

Reference has been made to certain laws which govern 
transmission. Of these three may be considered as funda- 



38 AGRICULTURE. 

mental, viz.: first, the law that "like begets like"; sec- 
ond, the law or principle of variation; and third, the law 
or principle known as atavism. Since these laws or prin- 
ciples appear to us to lack uniformity and regularity of 
action, the art of breeding is in consequence much more 
complicated and uncertain than it would otherwise be. 
This want of uniformity and of regularity of action, how- 
ever, is apparent rather than real. But so long as we are 
ignorant of the cause or causes of these apparent irregu- 
larities in transmission, we are unable to prevent them. 
And yet there is so much of uniformity in the action of 
these laws that the intelligent breeder cannot be said to 
play at a game of chance. If well posted in the art, his 
efforts will in the main be entirely successful. 

The law that " /zX'^ begets like'" implies that the char- 
acteristics of the parents will appear in their offspring. 
This law would seem to pervade all animated nature ; 
generally speaking it is uniform in its action, but there 
are some exceptions. Were it not so, examples to illus- 
trate such a law of heredity and proofs to support it would 
not have been needed. That the existence of this law was 
recognized, and that many of its principles were well un- 
derstood from an early period, finds ample illustration in 
the breeding operations conducted by the patriarch Jacob, 
in the monstrous forms that were bred for the amusement 
of the Romans when the decline of the empire was pend- 
ing, and in the care with which the Arabs kept their pedi- 
grees from a remote antiquity. 

So uniform is this principle of heredity in its action that 
it may be designated the compass which guides the breeder 
into the harbor of success. But before he can anchor there 
he must give attention to certain principles, a close adher- 
ence to which is absolutely essential to higher attainment 
in results. He must, for instance, breed to a standard of 
excellence; he must set a proper value on improved blood: 
and he must understand the art of selection and the princi- 
ples of good management generally. Without a standard 
of excellence in his mind, that is, without an ideal type, 
the breeder does not himself know what he is seeking. 



FARM ANIMALS. 3^ 

Without dortilnatlt or stable characters, in at least one par- 
ent, no stability in transmission can be looked for, and 
without purity of breeding for generations dominant char- 
acters cannot be secured. Hence the great importance of 
purity of blood in effecting improvement in domestic ani- 
mals. Since some inferior animals will occasionally ap- 
pear, even where the breeding is the most skilful, the 
necessity will always exist for the exercise of a most rigor- 
'ous selection on the part of every breeder who is to stand 
on the upland of success. When aided by judicious selec- 
tion, the law that like produces like enables us to effect 
improvement until a certain standard of excellence is 
reached, to maintain improvement when it has been 
secured, and to mould new types and form new breeds. 

By the law or principle of variation is meant the ten- 
dency sometimes found in animals to produce characters 
in the progeny which differ from those of the parental 
type. These changes relate to both form and function; 
in time they may become modifications of the systems of 
animals. They may be classed as gradual, ox general ^.n^. 
ordinary; and as sudden, or spontaneous and extraordinary. 
General variation is that tendency to change from the 
original type which characterizes in a greater or a less de- 
gree all the individuals of a breed. Illustrations of the 
principle of general variation may be found, first, in the 
tendency of grain to deteriorate which has fallen upon an 
unkindly soil ; and second, in the quick deterioration of 
the heavy breeds of sheep when confined to unproductive 
and rugged pastures. Chief among the numerous causes 
leading to general variation are changed conditions of life 
in animals, as climate, food, habit, and environment. Some- 
times these influences act independently and sometimes in 
conjunction. The principle of spontaneous variation may 
be defined as that tendency sometimes found in animals to 
produce progeny more or less unlike either of the parents 
or the ancestry of these. Illustrations of the operation of 
this principle may be found in the occasional production of 
progeny very unlike the parents or the ancestry in color, 
form, and other characteristics, and in the existence of horn- 
less breeds of cattle. 



40 AGRICtJLTUKE. 

By atavism is meant that innate tendency in animals to 
revert to the original type. It differs from the principle 
that like produces like in the reproduction of resemblances 
to an ancestry more or less remote rather than to the par- 
ents, and differs from spontaneous variation in produc- 
ing resemblances to an ancestry more remote than the im- 
mediate parents, whereas the latter produces characters 
unlike those of the ancestry, whether near or remote. Il- 
lustrations of atavic transmission are found in the occa- 
sional apearance of scars or horns in the polled breeds of 
cattle bred pure for many successive generations, and in 
the occasional appearance of tan-colored spots on the ears 
and face of the American merino. 

It is evident, therefore, that an intimate knowledge of 
the principles which govern breeding is highly important 
to those engaged in the production of live-stock. Hence 
they should study these with the utmost care and should em- 
body them in their practice to the greatest possible extent. 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 41 



III. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 

COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS. 

By W, G. Clark, M.D.C, Marinette. Wis. 
I. HORSES. 

The common method of administering medicine to the horse 
is in the form of a drench. In drenching a horse the bottle 
should be clean, strong, and smooth. The head should be 
elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throv^^ing the 
liquid from the mouth. If the animal refuses to swallow, tickle 
the roof of the mouth with the finger or the neck of the bottle. 
Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat, nor draw the tongue 
out. These in no way aid the horse to swallow and often do 
harm. If coughing occurs or by any mishap the bottle is 
crushed in the mouth, lower the head at once. Do not attempt 
to pour medicine through the nose; it is liable to strangle the 
animal. 

Irritating substances, as turpentine, should be given in bland 
fluids such as oil or milk. 

Warm-water injections are of great value in treating many 
bowel troubles. A very good injection pipe may be made with 
about 30 inches of inch rubber hose and an ordinary tin funnel. 
Oil the hose and insert it in the rectum from 12 to 18 inches, and 
elevate the funnel above the back and pour in the water. The 
force of gravitation will carry it into the bowels. 

Soap and water, or salt and water, may be injected in this 
manner in quantitities of a gallon or more every hour. 

Spasmodic Colic. 

Causes. — Error in diet is the most prolific cause, as improper 
food in improper quantities at irregular intervals ; large 
draughts of cold water when warm ; eating when exhausted ; 
intestinal parasites; or foreign bodies in the bowels. 

Symptoms. — The horse manifests uneasiness, moves forward 
and back in the stall, looks toward the flank, switches the tail, 
paws, lies down and rolls; after a little the spasm will subside 
and the animal become quiet. Soon the spasm returns with 



43 AGRICULTURE. 

increased severity; As the disease progresses, tlie anirriaJ 
will become more violent and the intervals between the 
spasms shorter. 

Treatment. — Always urgent, as it often runs a rapid 
course, terminating fatally in a few hourS; 

Give as a drench laudanum i oz., baking-soda one table- 
spoonful, sweet spts. nitre i oz., water one half-pint. This 
may be repeated in half an hour it not relieved. Alvvays 
give injections of soap and warm water. Blanket the ani- 
mal and rub the abdomen briskly. If inclined to hang on, 
apply a paste of mustard to the abdomen and give raw lin- 
seed oil I pt., chloral hydrate 4 dr., dissolved in warm 
water. 

Flatulent Colic. 

The causes and symptoms are similar to those of spas- 
modic colic. 

The pain is not so severe at the outset and gradually in- 
creases in severity as the bowels become distended by gas. 
No intervals of ease as in spasmodic colic. The abdomen 
becomes rapidly distended and the animal dies from su^ffo- 
cation or rupture of the bowels unless soon relieved. 

Treatment. — Usually necessary to puncture with a tro- 
car and canula, which requires a knowledge of the anat- 
omy of the parts. Internally give hyposulfite of soda 2 oz., 
fl. ex. ginger 4 dr., spts. turpentine 4 dr., water i pint. 
Repeat in half an hour if necessary. Give injection of soap 
and warm water at short intervals. 

Pneumonia — Lung Fever. 

The most common cause is exposure to a cold draught 
when tired and sweaty. 

Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in with a chill, fol- 
lowed by fever. The ears and legs are cold, pulse-rate in- 
creased, labored breathing, elbows turned out, increased 
working of the ribs, the animal persistently stands, appe- 
tite usually lost. 

Treatment. — Place in a comfortable well-ventilated box- 
stall. Blanket warmly, rub the legs and apply bandages. 



YETERIXARY SCIENCE. 43 

During the chill give large doses of stimulants, as whisky, 
alcohol, ginger, etc., at short intervals. 

If the breathing is not relieved in a few hours, apply mus- 
tard over the ribs, just back of the shoulder-blades. 

Give nourishing, easily digested food. Keep the animal 
perfectly quiet. Give i-oz. doses of nitrate of potash in the 
drinking-water three times daily. After the chill is relieved 
keep a pail of fresh water before the animal at all times. 

Azoturia — Black-water. 

This disease is quite common among farm horses, 
and is due solely to overfeeding on nitrogenous foods and 
lack of exercise, followed by the accumulation in the sys- 
tem of waste matters. 

Symptoms. — The animal is taken from the barn after a 
few days' rest on full rations, apparently as well as usual. 
After driving from half a mile to six or eight miles the 
horse will begin to lag and sweat profusely. Shortly will 
begin to go lame, usually in one hind limb. If urged on, 
will soon lose the use of the limbs and fall to the 
ground, unable to rise. The urine if passed will 
be dark and coffee-colored. This is a diagnos- 
tic symptom. The muscles over the hips become hard 
and swollen, and the animal will struggle convulsively and 
attempt to rise. 

Treatment. — Unhitch the animal as soon as the first symp- 
toms are noticed and take the horse to the nearest barn. Fold 
a woolen blanket and wring out of hot water and place over the 
hips, covering with a dry blanket. Repeat as soon as it becomes 
cool, and continue this until the more acute symptoms are re- 
lieved. Internally give laudanum i oz., raw linseed oil one pint, 
and repeat the laudanum in an hour if the pain is not relieved. 
If possible, the urine should be drawn with a catheter, as it is 
rarely passed when the animal is down. Give injections of soapy 
warm water at frequent intervals. 

Distemper — Strangles. 

This is a contagious disease due to a specific virus that very 
few horses escape. It usually runs a benign course and termi- 
nates favorably. 



44 AGRICULTURE. 

Treatment. — It is not of much use to attempt to check the 
course of the disease; in all cases proper shelter and nursing are 
most important. 

Give laxative sloppy food and apply warm poultices to the 
throat, to hasten suppuration. In no case give purging or de- 
pressing medicines. In fact, the whole treatment consists in 
producing and favoring the discharge of the abscess. As soon 
as fluctuation can be detected the abscess should be opened. 
When the disease assumes the malignant form or is complicated, 
apply to a competent veterinarian. 

Sprains. 

Treatment. — Rest in a quiet well-bedded stall. If the injury 
is below the knee or hock and the weather is warm, bathe the 
part three times daily for an hour at a time with cold water and 
rub dry. 

If above the knee or hock, or the weather is cold, use hot water. 

After bathing apply a mild stimulant, as spirits of camphor, 
arnica, etc. 

If the lameness persists after the active inflammation is re- 
duced use the following liniment: aqua ammonia and spirits 
turpentine, 4 oz. ; of each linseed oil 8 oz. ; mix and apply twice 
daily with friction. 

Punctured Wounds of the Foot. 

In all cases the horn around the seat of the injury should 
be thinned down and a free opening made for the escape of 
the products of suppuration. Cauterize the wound with 95 
per cent carbolic acid and apply a poultice. Change twice 
daily and dress the wound with the following lotion: Zinc 
sulph. I oz., sugar lead i oz., carbolic acid 4 dr., water i pint. 
Thrnsb. 

The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of 
the stable in which the horse is kept. Muddy yards and roads, 
also hard work on rough, stony roads may excite this disease. 

Symptoms. — Increased secretion in the cleft of the frog and 
an offensive odor. After a time considerable discharge takes 
place and there is rapid destruction of the tissue of the frog. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause. Cut away all diseased tissue 
and cleanse the foot thoroughly. Take white vitriol i oz., and 
water 6 ozs. Saturate pledgets of tow or cotton with the solu- 
tion and crowd into the cleft and each side of the frog. Dress 
once daily until the discharge ceases. 



VETERINARY tCIKNCE. 45 

Cuts from Barb-^vire, etc. 

When bleeding to any extent follows a wound, this must first 
be checked. 

A moderately tight bandage with oakum, tow, or cobwebs will 
usually stop the bleeding in a short time. If the blood is bright 
red and flows in jets, apply a compress between the wound and 
the heart. 

If it is dark and the flow regular, apply pressure between the 
wound and the extremity. Cleanse the wound thoroughly with 
warm water and a soft sponge. Then dress with a 3 per cent 
solution of carbolic acid and apply a bandage so as to bring the 
edges together. If proud flesh appears, treat it with burnt alum, 

II. COWS. 

Milk Fever. 

Symptoms. — Dulness, uneasy movements of the hind 
limbs, head and horns hot; the animal soon becomes weak 
and unable to rise, head laid back on the flank or dashed to 
the ground, bowels constip<xtc<?, sensation usually lost. 

Treatment. — Give a purgative dose of salts. Apply 
mustard paste along the spine. Blanket and keep warm. 

Give injections of soap and warm water. Internally give 
J pt. of whisky, fl. ex. belladonna ^ oz., tr. nux vomica 2 dr. 
every three hours. 

Prevention. — Spare diet a week before and after calving. 
If constipated after delivery give a dose of salts. 
Garget. 

Causes. — Irregularities of diet, overfeeding on stimulat- 
ing food, exposure to cold, external injuries, as blows, etc. 

Symptoms. — Seldom attacks the whole udder. Swelling, 
heat, pain, and redness of the inflamed portion. The milk 
is curdled, whey-like, and mixed with blood. In severe 
cases there is much constitutional disturbance. 

Treatment. — Endeavor to discover the cause and remove 
it. The food should be devoid of milk-producing constitu- 
ents. Draw the milk frequently, using a milking-tube if 
necessary. 

If the weather is w^arm bathe the udder for an hour or 
more with hot water. 

Take fluid extract belladonna i oz., glycerin 2 ozs.; 



46 AGRICULTURE. 

mix and apply three times daily with mild friction. Give 
two teaspoonfuls fluid extract belladonna three times 
daily. If constipated, give epsom salts i. lb., ginger i oz., 
water i qt. 

Abortion. 

The cow may abort from any cause profoundly disturbing 
the nervous system, inflammation of the internal organs, 
diarrhoea, acute indigestion, blows on the abdomen, expos- 
ure to cold storms, drinking ice-water, feeding on ergotized 
grains and grasses, and infection from abortion discharges 
of other animals. 

Symptoms. — If it occurs within the first two months it is 
not apt to be noticed. During the latter part of gestation 
abortion resembles normal delivery, except that more effort 
and straining are present. 

Treatment. — The most important object in an impending 
abortion is to recognize it as soon as possible and apply 
preventive measures. Place in a quiet dark stall and check 
straining by sedatives. Laudanum i oz. ; repeat in two 
hours if necessary; or fl. ex. black haw. in same doses. 

After an abortion burn the foetus and afterbirth and all 
2itter that is soiled, or bury deeply and cover with quick- 
lime. 

Flood the womb with a 2% solution of carbolic acid and 
wash the external organs once daily with a S% solution. 
Separate from the herd for 30 days. 

In epizootic abortion material benefit has in many cases 
been derived from phosphate of lime. Small doses {\ dram) 
mav be given daily in the food. 

Hoven or Bloat. 

Causes. — Overeating, choking, frosted roots, and fermen- 
tation of the food. 

Treatment. — In urgent cases tap on the left side at a 
point equidistant from the point of the hip, the last rib and 
the processes of the lumbar vertebrae, pointing the trocar 
or knife downward, inward, and forward. If slight give 



VETEKIi^ARY SCIENCE. 4< 

spts. turpentine i oz., raw linseed oil ^ pt., and place a gag 
in the mouth. 

When relieved give a purgative and keep on a light diet 
for a few days. 

Diarrhoea in Calves. 

Always due to indigestion and caused usually by over- 
feeding or improper food. 

Prevention. — Feed at least three times daily. The milk 
should be sweet and fed at a temperature of 90° to 100° F. 
The pails used in feeding should be kept sweet and clean. 

Treatment. — Cut down the ration, scald the milk or add 
lime-water in the proportion of i to 5. If the discharges 
are bright yellow give castor oil i to 2 tablespoonfuls. If 
there is great weakness give small doses of stimulants 
(ginger, brandy, whisky). 

Choking. 

Common among cattle when fed on roots, etc. To pre- 
vent tie the head so that it cannot be thrown up, or withhold 
dangerous foods. 

Symptoms. — Head extended, bloating, labored breathing, 
continuous coughing. If in the throat there is great distress 
and the animal may die quickly. If lower the symptoms 
are not as acute. 

Treatment. — If in the throat remove with the hand. If 
below reach and the object can be located from the outside, 
give small drenches of linseed oil and manipulate from the 
outside. Take time. Do not apply too much force. Usu- 
ally best to work the object toward the throat. 

If unable to remove the object it must be pushed down; 
this may be done with a piece of i-in. rubber-hose, 6 ft. in 
length, well oiled, and inserted in the gullet, and gently 
force the object down. 

Tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease characterized by the 
formation in the various organs of the body of tubercles or 



48 AGRICULTURE. 

nodules, and is due to a specific micro-organism, the bacillus 
tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis in animals is identical wit-h tuberculosis 
(consumption) in the human family, the ravages of which 
are far greater than those of any other disease. 

The death rate from consumption, which is but one of its 
many forms, is about one in seven. 

All domestic animals are more or less subject to the dis- 
ease. Dairy cattle, however, in consequence of their mode 
of life and the heavy drain on their system from excessive 
breeding and milking, are more predisposed to the disease 
than any other of the domestic animals. 

Cause. — The essential cause is the specific germ, the 
tubercle bacillus, without which the disease could not exist. 
Since the disease is found in the lungs in a large proportion 
of cases, it is evident that tuberculosis is usually contracted 
by inhaling the germs with the air. It may also be caused 
by the ingestion of infected meat and milk and by direct 
inoculation. 

The development of the disease is favored by anything 
that tends to impair the general health of the animal, as 
overcrowding in poorly ventilated stables, hereditary pre- 
disposition, in-and-in breeding, lack of exercise, errors in 
diet, etc. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are very obscure, and in some 
cases where the disease is well advanced there is seemingly 
little alteration in the health of the animal. The most 
prominent symptoms are a short, husky cough, enlargement 
of the lymph glands around the throat, dulness, capricious 
appetite, staring coat, and emaciation. 

Persistent oestrum or heat, with barrenness, especially 
when there is a harsh, staring coat and general unthrifty 
condition, is suspicious. 

The Tuberculin Test. — Tuberculin is a glycerin ex- 
tract of the soluble products produced by the growth of the 
tubercle bacillus, concentrated, filtered, and sterilized. 
When properly prepared it contains no living germs and 
cannot produce tuberculosis. It was introduced to the 
medical profession by Dr. Koch as a cure for tuberculosis. 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 49 

Although it has not found practical application as a curative 
agent, it furnishes us the best diagnostic agent for bovine 
tuberculosis yet known. 

A summary of statistics indicates that about 88 per cent 
of tuberculous animals show the reaction fever on inocula- 
tion, while 90 per cent that were declared free from disease 
on account of the absence of fever did not show on autopsy 
any signs of the disease. 

Prevention. — The stables should be light and well ven- 
tilated. Cattle should be kept from interchange of stalls 
or stanchions. Breed only from healthy animals. No con- 
sumptive person should be allowed to care for stock. 

Isolate all suspected animals. Such animals should be 
examined by a competent veterinarian, and if found to be 
tuberculous the whole herd should be tested. Tuberculous 
animals should be killed and the carcasses burned or buried 
deeply and covered with quicklime. Disinfection should 
be thorough. Remove and burn all litter. Burn sulphur 
in the closed stable. Wash or spray all woodwork with a 
solution of corrosive sublimate, one part, to one thousand 
parts of water. 

Corrosive sublimate is a deadly poison and should be 
used with care. Whitewash with freshly slaked lime. 

III. SHEEP. 
Scab. 

Due to parasitic mites which infest the skin. 

Symptoms. — Intense itching, small reddish pimples ap- 
pear, rupture, and discharge a watery fluid; scabs form, the 
wool falls out in patches. Large sores sometimes result 
from the incessant rubbing. The parasite may be seen with 
a low-power lens. 

Treatment. — Take one pound of tobacco to each five 
gallons of water and boil until the strength is exhausted 
from the leaves. Strain and add one pound of sulphur to 
each five gallons. Allow each sheep to remain in the bath 
for five minutes, working the solution into all parts of the 
skin and breaking up the scabs. Place on a slooping rack 
and press the liquid out of the fleece, allowing it to run back 
into the trough. The same dip may be used for ticks. 



50 AGRICULTURE. 

Foot-Rot. 

Separate the sound animals from the diseased ones and 
from contaminated pastures and buildings. Carefully 
I'emove all diseased horn and foreign bodies and walk 
the sheep through a trough containing one pound of blue 
vitriol to three gallons of water. Place the infected flock 
on a dry upland pasture, if possible. 

Grub ill the Head. 

This is the larvse of a small gadfly {vestrtis ovis) which 
deposits its eggs within the nostrils. It stays there during 
the winter and spring, often proving harmless, but some- 
times causing much irritation, a white muco-purulent dis- 
charge, with dullness and stupor. 

Prevention. — Smear the nose with tar, or feed salt from 
two-inch augur-holes bored in a log, the surface of which is 
smeared with tar. 

Treatment. — Place in a warm building and introduce 
into the nostrils snuff, a solution of tobacco, or turpentine 
and olive-oil equal parts, to kill the larvae or cause their 
expulsion by sneezing; or place in a close room and subject 
to the fumes of burning sulphur for 15 min., as strong as 
can be endured, once daily for 3 or 4 days. 

IV. SWINE. 

Hog Cholera. 

A specific contagious fever of swine. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation varies from three 
to fifteen days. Shivering, nose hot and dry, later refuses 
food, lies under the litter, eyes sunken, gait unsteady. 
Heat and soreness of the skin, with tenderness, red patches 
and black spots; labored breathing; hard, dry cough; sore- 
ness of the belly; costiveness, followed by a foetid diar- 
rhoea. 

Prevention. — If it breaks out in a herd, kill and bury the 
diseased. Thoroughly disinfect everything they have come 
in contact with, using one-half ounce of corrosive sublimate 
in four gallons of water. Burn all straw and litter. Give 
the healthy ones clean, dry quarters. If possible, divide up 
the herd, placing a fev/ in each pen. Allow free access to 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 



51 



wood or animal charcoal and give in the drinking-water ten 
drops of carbolic acid for each one hundred and fifty pounds 
of live weight. Take the temperature daily, inserting a 
clinical thermometer in the rectum, and remove every 
animal showing a temperature of 103° or over. 

Kill and bury as soon as the symptoms of the disease are 
well manifested. 

Medicinal treatment of the disease is of but. little avail. 
A good dietetical treatment, including a strict observance of 
sanitary principles, is of much more importance than the 
use of medicines. 

The pens should be kept scrupulously clean. The food 
given should be clean, of the best quality, and easily 
digested. The troughs used in feeding should be thor- 
oughly cleaned at least once daily. Keep away from in- 
fected herds, as the germs may be carried on the shoes or 
clothing. It is said that the virus will blow half a mile on 
the wind. It may also be spread by birds and dogs. 

Intestinal Worms. 

This is one of the most common troubles of swine. 

Symptoms. — A cough is usually the first symptom noticed; 
animals have a voracious appetite, yet lose flesh and exhibit 
general signs of ill health. If the faeces are examined the 
worms or their eggs can usually be found. 

Treatment. — Give one teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine 
for each one hundred and fifty pounds of live weight once 
daily in milk or oil. Place common salt where they can have 
free access to it. Give nutritious, easily digested food. 

VETERINARY REMEDIES AND DOSES. 

By W. G. Clark, M.D.C, Marinette, Wis. 
Graduation of Doses. 



Horse. 


Ox. 


Dose. 


3 years. 
2 

6 months. 
1-6 " 


2 years. 
I " 
9 months. 
3-6 

.■■3 •• 


I part. 

2/3 " 

1/3 " 

7/8 " 

1/16 — 1/32 part. 



52 AGRICULTURE. 

When not specified, the doses given apply to a full-grown 
horse of medium size. Dose for the ox, from i| to 2 parts; 
sheep, 5^ to i part. Animals of a nervous temperament are 
usually more susceptible to the action of drugs. 

No agent should be given until sufficiently diluted to 
prevent irritation of the mouth, and irritants that will not 
mix with water (turpentine, etc.) should be given in linseed 
oil, milk, or eggs, after being thoroughly mixed. 

Raw Linseed Oil. — Dose : Horse, one half-pint to one 
quart. Laxative in small doses, purgative in large. Not 
so active as castor oil. A valuable laxative in young and 
delicate animals. For calves and lambs it is more gentle 
and safer than salts. In adults it is the best laxative to 
use where there is an irritable condition of the bowels, and 
in all febrile diseases where a laxative is needed. In im- 
paction of the bowels a pint may be given two or three 
times daily until relieved, supplemented by warm-water 
injections every two hours. Valuable in cases of choking 
on account of its lubricating qualities. 

Castor Oil. — Causes more griping and nausea than lin- 
seed oil and is more certain in its action. Used chiefly as a 
laxative for calves, foals, sheep, swine, and dogs. 

Useful in diarrhoea of calves and other young animals 
when the discharges are bright yellow and irritating. 
Dose for a calf, from i to 4 tablespoonfuls. 

Epsom Salts. — For cattle this is the purgative in most 
frequent and general use. Adult cattle take from i Ib.'to i^ 
lbs. In small doses in febrile diseases it lowers the tem- 
perature, improves the appetite, and helps to maintain a 
healthy and regular action of the bowels. Epsom salts is 
one of the best antidotes for lead poisoning. When used 
as a purgative, give from i to 2 oz. ginger with the salts. 

Oil of Turpentine (Spts. Turpentine). — Dose : Horse, 
^ to I oz. Very irritating to the mucous mem.brane, and when 
used internally should be given in oil or some bland fluid. 
Stimulant and anti-spasmodic. One of the most useful 
remedies in flatulent colic in the horse, and hoven or bloat 
in the ox. Also used to kill and expel intestinal worms. 
When used for this purpose, it is given after fasting in 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 63 

large doses, i^ to 2 oz. for the horse, followed in 12 hours 
by a purgative. 

Applied externally it is an irritant and is used in many 
liniments. The following liniment may be used where a 
mild counter-irritant is desired : Oil of turpentine and aqua 
ammonia, of each 4 oz., linseed oil 8 oz. Mix. This lini- 
ment is used chiefly for rheumatic swellings, sprains, and 
bruises after the active pain is subdued by fomentations, 
and for sore throats, as seen in distemper. 

Alcohol.— Dose : Horse, i oz. well diluted, whisky 
or brandy 2 to 4 oz. Alcohol is a narcotic poison. It first 
stimulates, then deranges, and ultimately depresses the 
lunctions of the brain and spinal cord. It kills, as a rule, by 
paralysis of respiration. Medicinally it is a very valuable, 
diffusible stimulant, anti-spasmodic heart tonic and anti- 
septic. Moderate doses increase the gastric secretions and 
aid digestion, but large doses destroy pepsin, arrest secre- 
tion, and interfere with absorption. There is probably no 
drug more extensively used than alcohol. It is useful in 
indigestion, spasmodic colic, cases of poisoning by aconite 
or tobacco. It is valuable in influenza and debilitating dis- 
eases. In blood-poisoning whisky combined with quinine 
is one of the most effective agents we have in controlling 
the temperature and keeping up the strength of the animal. 

The following is very useful in some cases of indigestion: 
Whisky i pt., quinine (sulfate) i oz., water i pt. Mix. 
Give 3 ounces at intervals of 3 to 4 or 6 hours, according to 
the nature of the case. 

Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash). — Dose : Horse, i tea- 
spoonful to half an ounce. Large doses are irritant and 
cathartic and are liable to cause inflammation of the bow- 
els. Medicinal doses are discretive, alterative, antiseptic, 
febrifugal, and refrigerant. In febrile, inflammatory, and 
rheumatic complaints it allays fever, lowers excessive tem- 
perature, and removes by the kidneys both solid and fluid 
matters. Dissolved in water and applied externally it ab- 
stracts heat and is a useful refrigerant. Combined with 
sulfate of iron it makes an excellent tonic for horses 
recovering from debilitating diseases. 



54 AGRICULTURE. 

Saltpeter 2 oz., dried sulf. iron 3 oz. Mix. Give 2 
teaspoonfuls with the feed 2 or 3 times daily. 

Alum. — Alum is an astringent. Chiefly used externally. 
Use a saturated solution in hot water. Applied to the 
shoulders of horses in the spring it toughens the skin and 
prevents collar-galls. Useful in healing harness-galls. 
One of the best lotions to apply to barb-wire cuts and other 
wounds of a similar nature to prevent growth of proud 
flesh. Sometimes dusted over the surface in the form 
of burnt alum ; not so effective as the saturated solution. 

Ginger. — Dose : Horse, -^ to i oz. Ginger stimulates 
the various mucous membranes with which it comes in 
contact. Administered internally it increases the gas- 
tric secretions, facilitates digestion, and checks formation 
of gas. It is a useful adjunct to many medicines and is 
given with tonics and stimulants. Combined with purga- 
tives it diminishes their liability to nauseate and gripe, and 
also hastens their effect. It is used in all domesticated ani- 
mals to fulfil those purposes, and is especially adapted to 
cattle and sheep. 

Carbolic Acid. — One of the best and cheapest disinfec- 
tants known. For dressing fresh wounds it may be used 
in from 2 per cent to 5 per cent watery solution. In oil i 
part to 15. Inhalation of the vapor with steam is of great 
service in malignant sore throat and abscesses following 
strangles. Carbolic acid is a narcotic irritant poison, and 
considerable care must be exercised in its use, as it is liable 
to become absorbed and produce poisonous effects if ap- 
plied over a large surface in a strong solution. It has been 
highly recommended in the treatment of hog cholera. It 
may be given to hogs in doses of from i to 5 drops well 
diluted. 

Pine Tar. — Not much employed internally. It is a good 
dressing in thrush and canker of the horse's foot. It is also 
of special service in foot-rot in sheep. It acts as a stimulant 
and deodorizer to foul-smelling wounds and prevents the 
attacks of flies. 

Lime Water. — Lime water is prepared by slaking a small 
quantity of freshly burned lime with a large quantity of 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 55 

water, allowing the undissolved matter to settle and pour- 
ing off the clear solution. This should be kept in tightly 
corked bottles. Lime water is an alkali and is used in in- 
digestion, bloat, and diarrhoea, especially among calves. 
Given with the milk in the proportion of 1:5. Scalds and 
burns may be treated with carron oil, which is composed of 
lime water and linseed oil, equal parts. Fresh lime in 
powder and solution is used in cleansing and disinfecting 
stables. For this purpose a little carbolic acid may be 
added to the solution. 

Sulfur. ^In large doses it is an active irritant poison. In 
medicinal doses it is a laxative, alterative, and stimulates 
secretion. Care should be taken to prevent the animal 
from taking cold when given sulfur. It opens the pores of 
the skin and stimulates perspiration. Chiefly used in treat- 
ing rheumatism and chronic skin diseases. Dose : Horse, 

i OZ. to 2 OZ. 

SUPPRESSION OF HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE 
PLAGUE. (Craig.) 

Causes. — Hog cholera and swine plague are caused by 
different bacteria, but they are equally dependent for the 
success of their attacks on the unhealthiness of the hogs, 
due in most instances to unwholesome food and filthy sur- 
roundings. The causes are so similar and the symptoms 
are so much alike and often complicated that it will be best 
to consider the diseases together in what follows. The 
germs that cause them are easily spread over large terri- 
tories by being carried by cars, wagons, or the shoes of per- 
sons that have been among infected hogs. Most frequently 
the origin of the outbreak maybe traced to the importation 
of hogs from diseased districts or to spread from such 
centers by running streams. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms usually shown in attacks 
of these diseases are those that indicate fever— a rise in 
temperature, thirst, loss of appetite, and redness of the skin 
on the lower part of the neck and inner side of the thigh. 
Usually a hog so diseased begins to cough when started 



56 AGRICULTURE. 

from its bed. A constipated condition of the bowels 
changes to diarrhoea as the disease progresses, and this 
results in a rapid loss of flesh. Dissection generally shows 
the lungs to be inflamed, the spleen enlarged, or the 
lining of the large intestine covered with numerous ulcers. 

Prevention. — To protect hogs from attacks of these dis- 
eases it is necessary to observe the following recommen- 
•dations: The hogs should not be watered at running 
streams, as the germs are readily carried by these. Per- 
sons coming from infected districts should not be allowed 
to go near your hogs, and you should not go among your 
neighbors' hogs if they are sick. When other hogs are 
brought to your farm, assume that they are infected and 
keep them away from yours at least for six weeks. Observe 
as much cleanliness as possible in regard to food and sur- 
roundings. Feed a mixture of foods in a sloppy or soft con- 
dition, and withhold heavy grain feeding. Disinfect the 
quarters of the hogs by sprinkling liberally with a five per 
cent solution (by volume) of carbolic acid, and use a two per 
cent solution of the same for washing the hogs. 

Treatment. — The hogs showing any of the symptoms 
described should at once be separated from the others, and 
put in cheaply constructed quarters, so that the latter may 
be burned when no longer required. The well hogs should 
be removed to disinfected quarters. Give all the hogs the 
following mixture, recommended by Dr. Salmon, Chief of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry: 

Wood charcoal i lb. 

Sulfur I ♦• 

Salt 2 lbs. 

Baking-soda 2 '* 

Glauber's salts I lb. 

Sodium hyposulfite 2 lbs. 

Antimony sulfid i lb. 

This should be given in soft food in the proportion of a 
teaspoonful daily to a two hundred pound hog. Remove 
all refuse from the pens in which the infected hogs were 
kept, and dig out the old soil, put in fresh earth, disinfect 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 57 

with carbolic acid solution, and allow the pens to remain 
vacant for at least six months. The same feeder should 
not attend the well and the sick hogs unless his shoes are 
changed after each visit to the sick hogs. The bodies of 
the dead hogs should be thrown into a rubbish heap and 
burned; but if this cannot be easily carried out, a long, deep 
trench should be dug, and when the carcases are thrown 
into it they should be covered with a layer of quicklime and 
at least six inches of earth. When the disease has spent 
itself or has been effaced, the entire mass in the trench 
should be covered with six inches of quicklime and at least 
six feet of earth. The place selected for the burial of 
the hogs should not drain towards a stream, and it would 
be better to fence it. The dead hogs should never be drawn 
over the ground, and the wagon used should be washed 
with a disinfectant. 

During the last few years the serum treatment of swine 
plague and hog cholera has been introduced experimentally 
by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture. Although the results so far obtained are very 
promising, further studies are required before the efficacy 
and practicability of the method can be considered proved. 
Farmers whose hogs are attacked by hog cholera, or who 
fear such an attack, should at once communicate with the 
Bureau or with the State authorities and ascertain what 
assistance can be had. 

REMEDIES FOR THE HORN FLY. 

(Weed.) 

The most satisfactory way of preventing the attacks of 
the horn fly is to apply to the cattle some substance that 
serves as a repellent; the best results are obtained by the 
use of a cheap oil, such as fish oil or crude cotton-seed 
oil, to which a small amount of carbolic acid or pine tar 
has been added. Either of the following formulas are 
recommended for this purpose: 

I. Crude cotton-seed oil, or fish oil, 3 parts. Pine tar, 
I part. 



58 AGRICULTURE. 

2. Crude cotton-seed oil, or fish oil, lOO parts. Crude 
carbolic acid, 3 parts. 

In either case these substances are to be mixed, and ap- 
plied rather lightl)'- to the cattle by means of a wide pair.t 
brush, a sponge, or even a woolen cloth; the combination 
immediately drives off the flies, and remains on in condi- 
tion to keep them off for about five days. A combination 
of kerosene emulsion and tobacco decoction may also be 
used with good effect. 

LIST OF DISINFECTANTS. 

(Sternberg.) 
The most useful agents for the destruction of spore- 
containing infectious material are: 

1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 

2. Steam under Pressure, 105° C. (221° F.,) for ten minutes. 

3. Boiling in Water for half an hour. 

4. Chlorid of Lime (should contain at least 25 per cent of 
available chlorin). — A 4 per cent solution. 

5. Mercuric Chlorid. — A solution of 1-500. 

For the destruction of infectious material which owes 
its infecting power to the presence of micro-organisms not 
containing spores, any of the following agents are recom- 
mended: 

1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 

2. Boiling in water for ten minutes. 

3. Dry Heat, no" C. (230" F.), for two hours. 

4. Chlorid of Lime. — A 2 per cent solution. 

5. Solution of Chlorinated Soda (should contain at least 
3 per cent of available chlorin).— A 10 per cent solution. 

6. Mercuric Chlorid.— K solution of 1-2000. 

7. Carbolic Arid. — A 5 per cent solution. 

8. Sulfate of Copper.— K 5 per cent solution. 

9. Chlorid of Zinc. — A 10 per cent solution. 

10. Sulfur Dioxid (this will require the combustion of 
between 3 and 4 lbs. of sulfur for every 1000 cubic feet 
of air-space). — Exposure for twelve hours to an atmos- 
phere containing at least 4 volumes per cent of this gas, in 
presence of moisture. 



YETERINARY SCIEKCE. 59 

RULES FOR DISINFECTION OF STABLES. 

lu Case of Appearance of Contagious Diseases. 

(Trumbower.) 

1. Have all loose litter, hay, and rubbish removed and 
burned. 

2. Have all manure removed to land where cattle have no 
access. 

3. Have all feed-troughs, hay-racks and all woodwork 
thoroughly cleaned by washing with hot water in which two 
ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of water are dissolved. 

4. Thoroughly whitewash the whole of the interior of the 
building with a whitewash containing one pound of chloride 
of lime to each four gallons of water. Enough freshly 
burned quicklime should be added to make the wash show 
where applied. Especially should this be applied to the 
sides and front of the stalls, feed-troughs and hay-racks 
(inside and outside). 

5. All rotten woodwork to be removed and burned, and 
replaced with new. 

6. All buckets, forks, shovels, brooms, and other objects 
used about the stable to be washed and covered with the 
same solution. 

7. All drains to be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected 
with a solution of chloride of lime, one pound to four gal- 
lons of water. 

8. In cases of glanders, all harness, poles, and shafts of 
wagons, neck-yokes and pole-straps should be thoroughly 
washed with hot water and soap, and afterwards oiled with 
carbolized oil (one part of carbolic acid to ten of oil). Before 
applying the oil, harness should be hung up in the open air 
for one week. 

REGULATIONS .FOR THE GOVERNMENT OP 

Dairies and Dairy Farms in the District of Colum- 
bia. 

Section i. — No building shall be used for stabling cows 
for dairy purposes which is not well lighted, ventilated, 
drained, and constructed. 



30 AGRICULTURE. 

Sec. 2. — No building shall be used for stabling cows for 
dairy purposes which is not provided with a suitable floor, 
laid with proper grades and channels to immediately carry 
ofif all drainage; and if a public sewer abuts the premises 
upon which such building is situated, they shall be con- 
nected therewith whenever, in the opinion of the health 
officer, such sewer connection is necessary. 

Sec. 3. — No building shall be used fot stabling cows for 
dairy purposes which is not provided with good and suffi- 
cient feeding-troughs or boxes, and with a covered water- 
tight receptacle, outside of the building, for the reception 
of dung and other refuse. 

Sec. 4. — No water closet, privy, cesspool, urinal, in- 
habited room, or workshop shall be located within any 
building or shed used for stabling cows for dairy purposes, 
or for the storage of milk or cream, nor shall any fowl, 
hog, horse, sheep, or goat be kept in any room used for 
such purposes. 

Sec. 5. — The space in buildings or sheds used for stabling 
cows shall not be less than five hundred cubic feet for each 
cow, and the stalls therefor shall not be less than four feet 
in width. 

Sec. 6. — It shall be the duty of each person using any 
premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to keep sucn 
premises thoroughly clean and in good repair and well 
painted or whitewashed at all times. 

Sec. 7. — It shall be the duty of each person using any 
premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to cause the 
building in which cows are kept to be thoroughly cleaned, 
and remove all dung from the premises so as to prevent its 
accumulation in great quantities. 

Sec. 8. — It shall be the duty of any person having charge 
or control of any premises upon which, cows are kept to 
notify the health oflftcer, in writing, of the existence of any 
contagious or infectious disease among such cows, within 
twenty-four hours of the discovery thereof, and to thor- 
oughly isolate any cow or cows affected or which may rea- 
sonably be believed to be infected, and to exercise such 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. Gl 

other precautions as may be directed, in writing, by the 
health officer. 

Sec. 9. — Any person using any premises for keeping 
cows for dairy purposes shall provide and use a sufficient 
number of receptacles made of non-absorbent materials, 
for the reception, storage, and delivery of milk, and shall 
cause them at all times to be cleansed and purified, and 
shall cause all milk to be removed without delay from the 
rooms in which the cows are kept. 

Sec. 10. — Every person keeping cows for the production 
of milk for sale shall cause every such cow to be cleaned 
every day and to be properly fed and watered. 

Sec. II. — Every person using any premises for keeping 
cows shall cause the yard used in connection therewith to 
be provided with a proper receptacle for drinking water 
for such cows; none but fresh, clean water to be used in 
such receptacle. 

Sec. 12. — Any enclosure in which cows are kept shall be 
graded and drained so as to keep the surface reasonably 
dry and to prevent the accumulation of water therein, ex- 
cept as may be permitted for the purpose of supplying 
drinking water; no garbage, urine, fecal matter, or similar 
substances shall be placed or allowed to remain in such en- 
closure, and no open drain shall be allowed to run through it. 

Sec. 13. — These regulations shall apply to all premises 
upon which cow's milk is produced for sale. 

Sec. 14. — That any person violating any of these regula- 
tions shall, on conviction in the police court of said district, 
be punished by a fine of not less than five nor more than 
ten dollars for each and every offense, to be collected as 
other fines and penalties are collected. 



62 



AGllICULTL'RE. 



IV. FIELD CROPS. 

QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE. 

(Waring.) 



Designation. Ou|«','>' 

Wheat I J to 2 bu. 

Barley i^ to 2^ bu. 

Oats 2 to 4 bu. 

Rye I to 2 bu. 

Buckwheat | to ij bu. 

Millet I to i^ bu. 

Corn i to I bu. 

Beans i to 2 bu. 

Peas 2| to 3^ bu. 

Hemp I to i^ bu. 

Flax i to 2 bu. 

Rice 2 to 2^ bu. 



Designation. 0-»*y 

Broom-corn.... i to i-J bu. 

Potatoes 5 to lo bu. 

Timothy 12 to 24 qts. 

Mustard 8 to 20 qts. 

Herd grass 12 to i6 qts. 

Flat turnip 2 to 3 lbs. 

Red clover 10 to 16 lbs. 

White clover. ... 3 to 4 lbs. 

Blue grass 10 to 15 lbs. 

Orchard grass. .. 20 to 30 lbs. 

Carrots 4 to 5 lbs. 

Parsnips 6 to 8 lbs. 



When planted in rows or drills: 

Broom-corn i to i^ bu. 

Beans i^ to 2 bu. 

Peas li to 2 bu. 



Onions 4 to 5 lbs. 

Carrots 2 to 2^ lbs. 

Parsnips 4 to 5 lbs. 

Beets 4 to 6 lbs. 



SEED USED PER ACRE. (McKerrow.) 



Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Peas 

Buckwheat 

Keans. 

Oats & peas, S Oats 
mixed for hay ( Peas 

Flax 

Millet 

Corn 

Potatoes 



Drilled, 
Bus. 



>^ 



Broad- 
cast, 
Bus. 



2 14 
2 14 

21/; 



V2> t1^ 



Clover (red) 

Clover (Alsike) 

Clover (white) . .. . 
Clover & ^ 8 clover 
timothy ^ v timothy 

Timothy 

Orchard-grass . . 

Rape 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Beets 



Drilled, 
Lbs. 



i^ 



Broad- 
cast, 
Lbs. 



FIELD CROPS. 



G3 



SEED MIXTURES 



FOR HAY AND 
PASTURES 



111 Pounds per acre. 



PERMANENT 



Names of Grasses. 


I . 

Flint. 


IL 

Law- 
son. 


III. 
For Good 
Medium 

Soils. 
De Laune 


IV. 

For Wet 

Soils. 
De Laun^ 


V. 

For 

Chalky 

Soils. 

De Laun^ 


VL 
For 

Perma- 
nent 

Lawns. 
Flint. 




2 

6 

I 

2 


2 

4 


ID 


4 




3 
3 


Orchard grass 










Meadow fescue 

Tall fescue 


2 
2 
2 

2 

2 


6 
3 

I 
I 


I 


2 


2 


Hard fescue 




4 
4 




Sheep's fescue 

Redtop 


2 


2 




3 

4 








Kentucky blue grass. 

Italian rye grass 

Perennial rye grass.., 

Timothy 

Rough meadow grass 
Wood meadow grass. 
Red clover 


4 
4 
6 
3 

2 








6 
8 
.^ 
2 
2 








3 
4 
3 
3 








?» 


3 

2 










■•■■■■■• 

I 


■.::::::; 

I 

I 
I 
14 

5 




Perennial red clover. 
White (Dutch) clover 
Alsike 


3 

5 


2 
5 


I 
I 
I 


2 

2 


Yellow oat grass 




1 


I 






7 
2 

I 

I 


16 
2 

2 
I 

I 












Fiorin 














2 
3 




Cat's-taiL 

Cow gra.ss 




















40 


45 


41 


40 


38 


43 



For the Northwest the following mixture will, according 
to Shaw, be found suitable: 

Timothy 4 lbs., blue grass 3 lbs., redtop 2 lbs., orchard 
grass 2 lbs., meadow fescue i lb., tall oat grass i lb., 
meadow foxtail i lb., alsike clovers lbs., white clover 2 lbs., 
lucern (alfalfa) 2 lbs., yellow clover i lb., total 22 lbs. 

And for the States east of Michigan and for the provinces 
of Canada eastward of Lake Huron: 

Lucern (alfalfa) 5 lbs., orchard-grass 4 lbs., meadow 
fescue and alsike clover 3 lbs. each, tall oat grass, timothy, 
meadow foxtail, and white clover 2 lbs. each, yellow clover 
I lb.; total 24 lbs. 



64 AGRTCULTUKE. S 

Henry recommends the following mixture of grass and clover 
seed (pounds per acre) : 

Timothy 7 pounds. 

Orchard 4 " 

Italian rye 2 " 

Perennial rye. . , 2 " 

Talloat 2 " 

Redtop 2 " 

Kentucky blue o 2 " 

Alfalfa 4 ' 

White clover I " 

Alsike clover i ** 

Red clover 2 " 

Total 29 " 

Flint gives the following mixtures, among others, as repre- 
senting the common ones adopted in New England and among 
farmers throughout the country; 

1. "I bu. (6 lbs.) redtop; i peck (ii lbs.) timothy ; 5 lbs. red 

clover. 

2. I bu. (12 lbs.) redtop ; i peck (11 lbs.) timothy ; 8 lbs. red 

clover. 

3. 4 qts. (li lbs.) redtop ; i peck (11 lbs.) timothy ; 2 qts. red 

clover; i pint white clover. 

4. 12 qts. (16^ lbs.) timothy; 4 lbs. clover. 

5. I bu. redtop; i bu. timothy; 10 lbs. clover. 

6. r peck redtop; i peck timothy; lo lbs. clover, etc. 



FIELD CROPS. 



65 



The following mixtures of seeds are suggested for 
meadows and for pastures by the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture : 



A, Hay Mixtures. 



No. I. 

Pounds. 

Tall oat grass 70 

Red clover 30 

(Sow 35 to 40 lbs. per acre.) 

No. 2. 

Red top 30 

Orchard grass 40 

Meadow fescue 20 

Red clover 10 

(Sow 40 to 45 lbs. per acre.) 



No. 



Pounds. 

Italian rye grass 20 

Orchard grass 25 

Red clover 10 

Tall oat grass 20 

Red top 25 

(Sow 35 to 40 lbs. per acre.) 

No. 4. 

Timothy 40 

Red top 40 

Tall oat grass • • 20 

(Sow 40 lbs. per acre.) 



B. Pasture Mixtures. 



No. I. 

Kentucky blue grass 25 

White clover 10 

Perennial rye 30 

Red fescue 10 

Red top 25 

(Sow 35 lbs. per acre.) 

No. 2. 

Canada blue grass 5 

Red clover 5 

Orchard grass 5 

Tall oat grass 5 

Perennial rye grass 20 

Red top 35 

(Sow 40 to 45 lbs. per acre.) 



No. 3. For wet pastures. 

Red top 35 

Alsike 20 

Creeping bent 15 

Perennial rye 30 

(Sow 40 lbs. per acre.) 



No. 4. 



For light sandy 
soils. 



Red fescue 50 

Red top 25 

Kentucky blue grass. .. . 20 

White clover 5 

(Sow 35 to 40 lbs. per acre.) 



ee 



AGRICULTURE. 



THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION 
ORDINARY CROPS IN POUNDS PER ACRE. 

(Warington.) 



OF 





Weight of 
Crop. 





c 

So 



3 
C/5 






i 

2 


1 




x5 
P-, 


_o 

u 






At 
Har- 
vest. 


Dry. 




Wheat : 
grain, 30 bu. . 
straw 


lbs. 

1,800 
3,158 


lbs. 

1,530 
2,653 


lbs. 

30 
142 

172 


lbs. 

33 
15 


lbs. 

2.7 
51 

7.8 


;bs. 

9-3 
195 

28.8 


lbs. 

0.6 
2.0 

2.6 


lbs. 

I.O 
8.2 

9.2 


lbs. 

3-6 
3-5 

7-1 


lbs. 

14.2 
6.9 

21. 1 


lbs. 

0.1 
2.4 

2.5 


lbs. 

0.6 

96.3 


Total crop . . 


4,958 


4,183 


96.9 


Barley : 
grain, 40 bu.. 
straw 


2,080 
2,447 


1,747 
2,080 


46 
III 


35 
13 


2.9 

3-2 


9.8 
25-9 


I.I 

3-9 


1.2 
8.0 


4.0 
2.9 


16.0 

4-7 


0.5 
3-6 


II. 8 

56.8 


Total crop.. 


4i527 


3,827 


^57 


48 


6.1 


35-7 


5-0 


9.2 


6.9 


20.7 


4.1 


68.6 


Oats: 
grain, 45 bu.. 
straw 


i,8qo 
2,835 


1,625 
2,353 


51 
140 


38 
17 


3-2 

4.8 


9.1 

37.0 


0.8 

4.6 


1.8 
9.8 


3-6 
5-1 


■r.: 


5*5 
6.1 


19.9 

65.4 


Total crop.. 


4,725 


3,978 


191 

22 

99 


55 

28 
15 


8.0 
1.8 


46.1 

6.5 
29.8 


5-4 
0.2 


II. 6 
0.5 


8.7 
3-4 


19.4 

10. 
8.0 


6.6 
0.2 


85.3 


Maize : 
grain, 30 bu.. 
stalks, etc 


1,680 
2,208 


1,500 
1,877 


o.s 


Total crop.. 


3,888 


3,377 


121 


43 


.... 


36.3 






.... 


18.0 






Meadow hay, 
ij^ tons 


3,360 


2,822 


203 


49 
102 


5-7 
9.4 


50.9 
83-4 


9.2 
51 


32.1 

90.1 


14.4 
28.2 

4.2 

5-7 


12.3 

24.9 

22.8 
6.3 


14.6 
9.8 

I.I 

4-3 


56.9 


Red clover hay, 
2 tons 


4,480 


3,763 


258 


7.0 


Beans : 
grain, 30 bu.. 
straw 


1,920 
2,240 


1.613 
1,848 


58 

99 


77 
29 


4.4 
4.9 


24-3 
42.8 


0.6 

1-7 


2.9 
26.3 


0.4 
6.9 


Total crop.. 


4,160 


3,461 


157 


106 


9-3 


67.1 


2.3 


29.2 


9.9 


29.1 


5-4 


7.3 


Turnips : 
root, 17 tons, 
leaf 


38,080 
11,424 


3,126 
1,531 


2t8 
146 


63 
49 

192 


15.2 
5-7 

20.9 


108.6 
40.2 

148.8 


17.0 
7-5 

24.0 


48.5 
740 

19.7 
22.7 


9-5 

6.8 

2.4 


22.4 
10.7 

33-1 

16.9 
4.8 


10.9 
11.2 

22.1 

6.8 
8.3 


2.6 
5-1 






Total crop.. 


49,504 


4,657 


364 


7-7 


Swedes: 
root, 14 tons., 
leaf 


31,360 
4,704 


3,349 
706 


163 
75 


70 

28 


14.6 
3-2 


Si 


22.8 
9.2 


n 






Total crop.. 


36,064 


4.055 


238 


98 


17.8* 


79-7 


32.0 


42.4 


9.2 


21.7 


I5-I 


6.7 



* Calculated from a single analysis only. 



FIELD CROPS. 



THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF 
ORDINARY CHOPS.— Conihiued. 





Weight of 
Crop. 




H 


c 



3 

C/5 




1 


s 


4 

c 
bo 




d 

•c 
.2 

u 






At 
Har- 
vest. 


Dry. 




Mangolds: 
root, 22 tons., 
leaf . 


lbs. 

49,280 
18,233 


lbs. 

5,914 
1,654 


lbs. 

426 
254 


lbs. 

87 

51 


lbs. 
4-9 
9.1 


ilbs. 
222.8 
77-9 


lbs. 

69.4 
49-3 


lbs. 

159 
27.0 

42.9 


lbs. 

18.3 

24.2 
42.5 


lbs. 

36.4 
16.5 

52.9 


lbs. 

42.5 
40.6 

83.1 


lbs. 

8.7 

9.2 






Total crop.. 


67,513 


7,568 


680 


138 


14.0 


300.7 


187.7 


17.9 


Potato : 
tubers, 6 tons. 


13,440 


3,360 


127 


47 


2.7 


76.5 

4.2 

8.8 


3-8 

0.8 
1.6 


3-4 

12.9 
73-1 


6.3 

3-4 
10.9 


21.5 

1-5 
9-3 


4.4 


2.6 


Beech: 
wood. 




2,822 
2,975 


26 

166 


10 

39 




2.2 


leaf litter. ... 




53-9 








T'l produce. 




5,797 


192 


49 




13.0 


2.4 


86.0 


14-3 


10.8 




56.1 


Scotch pine: 
wood 




2,884 
2,845 


15 
42 


.... 




2-3 

4-3 


0.2 
1-7 


9.0 
16.8 


1-5 
4-3 


I.O 

3-3 




05 


leaf litter 




5.8 









T'l produce. 




5,729 


57 

20 
121 


— - 




6.6 

3-6 
4-3 

7-9 


1.9 

0.4 
1-5 

1.9 


25.8 

8.2 
54-4 

62.6 


5.8 

1.8 
6.2 

8.0 


4-3 

1-3 

5-7 

7.0 


iii: 


6.3 


Spruce fir: 




3,064 
2,683 


2.9 


leaf litter 


— - 


44-3 


T'l produce. 


5,747 


141 






47.2 



SOILING CROPS ADAPTED TO NORTHERN NEW 

ENGLAND STATES. (Lindsey.) 

(For 10 cows' entire soiling.) 



Kind. 


Seed per Acre. 


Rye 


2 bush 


Wheat 


Grass and clo-. 
ver f 


1^ bu. redtop... 
I peck timothy, 
lolbs. red clover 

3 bush, oats 

50 lbs. vetch ... 

ij^bu. Canada, 
ii^bu. oats.... 

I ^eck 

18 quarts 


Vetch and oats, -j 

Peas and oats . . ] 

Barnyard millet.. 

Soja bean (me- 
dium green) — 






Hungarian 

Barley and peas ■< 


I bush • 

ii^bu. peas.... 
ii^ bu. barley.. 



Time of 
Seeding. 



Sept. 10-15 
July 15— Aug. 
i Sept. 

i April 20 
" 30 



30 

May 10 

" 25 



Area. 



30 

July 15 

Aug. 5 



1^ acre 



14 acre 



5^ acre 



|V^ acre 
I acre 



Time of Cutting 



May 20- 
June I- 
June 15- 



June 15— June 30 



-May 30 
-June 15 
-June 25 



June 25- 
July 10- 
June 25- 
July ID- 
July 25- 
Aug. 10- 

Aug. 25- 
Aug. 25- 
Sept. 10- 
Sept. 20- 

Oct. I- 



-July lo 

-July 20 

-July 10 

-July 20 
-Aug. 10 
-Aug. 20 

-Sept. 15 
-Ser)t 10 
Sept.2o 
-Sept. 30 

■Oct. 20 



68 



AGRICULTURE. 



TIME OF PLANTING AND FEEDING SOILING 
CROPS. (Phelps.) 



Kind of Fodder. 



Rye fodder 

Wheat fodder 

Clover 

Grass (from grass-lands)., . 
Oats and peas 



Hungarian 

Clover rowen (from 3) 

Soja beans 

Cow-peas . ... — 

Rowen grass (from grass- 
lands) 

Barley and peas 



Amount of 
Seed 
per Acre. 



zi^ to 3 bu. 

2I to 3 bu. 

20 lbs. 

2 bu. each 



ij^ bushels 

I bushel 
I bushel 



2 bu. each 



Approxi- 
mate Time 
of Seeding. 



Sept. I 
Sept. 5-10 
July 20-30 

April 10 
'* 20 
" 30 

June I 

May 25 
June 5-10 



Aug. 5-10 



Approximate 
Time of Feeding. 



May 10-20 
May 20, June 5 
June 5-15 
June 15-25 
June 25, July 10 
July 10-20 

" 20. Aug. I 
Aug. I -10 

" 10-20 

'* 20, Sept. 5 

Sept. 5-20 

" 20-30 

Oct. 1-30 



The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and regions 
under approximately similar conditions. 

REPLACING WINTER-KILLED CLOVER. 

The following brief article gives a list of forage plants 
that will be found suitable for furnishing green feed for 
cattle and other farm animals in regions where the clover 
has been winter-killed. It was originally published as a 
newspaper bulletin from the Wisconsin Experiment Station 
and is written with special reference to conditions in the 
Northwestern States. 

JIow to get the Quickest Pasture. — A field of oats or barley 
will furnish the quickest pasture it is possible to obtain, 
barley being a little earlier than oats. Sow oats or barley 
as for a grain crop, and when the young plants are a few 
inches high, turn in the stock and treat the field as though 
it were a pasture. If the cattle do not graze the field 
evenly, run the mower over the patches where the growth 
is excessive. By keeping the growth short it will last 
much longer than if allowed to head out. It is recom- 
mended that, as an experiment, clover and timothy seed 
be sown with a part at least of the oats or barley, in the 
hope of securing a stand for next season. The farmer who 
can pasture his oat or barley field and get a crop of clover 
started at the same time will be one year ahead. This rec- 
ommendation must be regarded as an experiment, but it 
has been successfully tried in a number of cases. 



FIELD CROPS. 



69 



Oats and Peas, --'Lei the farmer also put in a patch of oats 
and peas. Sow a bushel and a half of peas per acre, cover- 
ing three or four inches deep on light soil, and one or two 
inches on heavy soil. After these are planted sow or drill 
the oats in the usual manner. Cut the green forage for the 
cattle, or cure for hay. 

Millet. — For winter hay sow millet or Hungarian grass 
from the loth to the 30th of June, using from a bushel to a 
bushel and a half of seed per acre. When the seed-heads 
are coming into blossom, cut and cure for hay. Millet or 
Hungarian grass will yield from one ton to two and a half 
tons of good quality hay per acre. Horses should not be 
given over one feed of millet hay per day. 

Corn Fodder. — Any variety of corn will do for green or 
dry forage, the early kinds being the most suitable for 
early fall feed. Sweet corn is very satisfactory because the 
stalks are soft and palatable. Plant in hills or drills just thick 
enough to decrease the size of the ears to about half their 
normal size. Begin feeding as soon as the ears are glaz- 
ing, and continue with the dry forage throughout the win- 
ter. From three to six tons per acre of winter forage, suit- 
able for all kinds of farm stock, can be secured from acorn 
crop grown on good land. (Henry.) 

CYLINDRICAL SILOS. 



Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos for Well 
Matured Corn Silage, in Tons. (King.) 





Inside Diameter in Feet. 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


.2 


23 


24 


25 


20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

It:::. 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32. . . 


58.84 
62.90 
67-35 

71-73 
76.12 
80.62 
85-45 
90.17 
94-99 
99.92 
105.0 
109.8 
115-1 


66.95 
71.56 
76.52 
81.61 
86.61 
89.64 
97-23 
102 6 
108. 1 
"3-7 
"9-4 
124.9 
135-9 


11 

86 
92 

97 
103 
109 
"5 
122 
128 
134 
141 
147 


58 

3I 
14 

f 

8 
8 


I 
8 


84.74 
90.57 
96.84 
103.3 
109.6 
116. 1 
123.0 
129.8 
136.8 
143.9 
151. 1 
158.2 
165.7 


94.41 
100.9 
107.9 
115-1 
122. 1 
129.3 
137. 1 
144.7 

\tx 

168.4 
176.2 
184.6 


104.6 
III. 8 
119. 6 
127.5 
135.3 
143-3 
151-9 
160.3 
168.9 
177.6 
186.6 
195.2 
204.6 


"5-3 
123.3 
131.8 
140.6 
149.2 
158.0 
^67- 5 

1 86 .'2 
195.8 
205.7 
215-3 
225.5 


126.6 

135-3 
144.7 

154-3 
163-7 
173-4 
183.8 
194.0 
204.3 
214.9 
225.8 
2.36.3 
247-5 


138.3 
147-9 
158.1 
168.7 
179.0 
189.5 
200.9 
212.0 
223.3 

258.2 
270.5 


150.6 
161.0 
172.2 
183.6 
194.9 

206.4 

218.8 
230.8 
243-2 
255.8 
268.7 
281.8 
294.6 


163.4 
174-7 
186.8 
199.3 
211.5 
223.9 
237.4 
250-5 

263.9 

277.6 
291.6 

305.1 

319.6 



70 



AGRICULTURE. 



Area of Feeding Surface and Inside Diameter of Cyl- 
indrical Silo Required to Supply Herds of Different 
Sizes. (King.) 



Feeding Surface. 
30 cows, : 150 square feet 



40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 



200 
250 
300 
350 
400 
450 
500 



Inside Diameter. 
14 feet. 
16 
18 

19.75 ** 
21.25 ** 
22.75 '* 
24 
25.25 " 



NUMBER OF PLANTS FOR AN ACRE OF GROUND. 



Distance apart. 
Inches. 



Number of 
Plants. 

3 X 3 696,960 

4 X 4 392,040 

6 X 6 174,240 

9X9 77,440 

Feet. 

1 X I 43,560 

li X li 19,360 

2 X 1 21,780 

2 X 2 10,890 

2i X 2^ , 6,960 

3X1 14,520 

3X2 7,260 

3 X 3 4,840 

3i X 3i 3,555 

4 X 1 10,890 



4X2. 
4X3. 
4X4.. 
4i X Ah 
5 X I.. 
5 X 2.. 
5 X 3.. 
5 X 4-. 
5 X 5.- 



5,445 

3>630 

2,722 

2,151 

8,711 

4,356 

2,904 

2,178 

1,742 

Sh X 5i 1,417 



Distance apart. 
Feet. 



X 6 . 
X 6i. 

X 7.. 

X 8.. 
X9-. 
X 10. 



9 
10 
II 
12 
13 
14 

15 X 

16 X 
i6i X i6i 160 

17 X 17 150 

18 X 18 134 

19 X 19 '•• 120 

20 X 20 108 



Number of 
Plants. 

, . . . I2IO 

.... IO31 

, ... 881 

.... 680 

. ••• 537 

.-•• 435 

. ... 360 

302 

.... 257 

222 

. ... 193 

.... 170 



25 X 25. 

30 X 30. 

33 X 33. 
40 X 40. 
50 X 50. 
60 X 60. 
66 X 66. 



69 
48 
40 
27 
17 
12 
10 



FIELD CROrS. 



n 



NUMBER OF HILLS Oil PLANTS ON AN ACRE OF 
laiul, for any distance apart, from 10 in. to 6 ft., 
the lateral and lonj^itudinal distances being un- 
equal. (Waring.) 



AS 


lO 

in. 


12 
in. 


in. 


18 
in. 


20 
in. 


2 ft. 


2}4 

ft. 


3 ft. 


f. 


4 ft. 


t 


5 ft. 


f 


6 ft. 


in. 

lO 


62726 




























12 


52272 


43560 


























I") 


41817 


34848 


27878 
























i8 


S4«4« 


29040 


2323a 


19360 






















20 
ft. 

2 


31363 


26136 


20908 


17424 


15681 




















26136 


21780 


17424 


14520 


13068 


10890 


















2^ 


20908 


17424 


I39SQ 


11616 


10454 


8712 


bqtq 
















3 


17424 


14520 


11616 


9680 


8712 


7260 


5808 


4840 














3^ 


14935 


12446 


9953 


8297 


7467 


6223 


4976 


4148 


3565 












4 


13068 


10890 


8712 


7260 


6534 


5445 


4356 


3630 


^ili 


2722 










4^ 


11616 


q68o 


7744 


6453 


5808 


4840 


3872 


3226 


2767 


2420 


2it;i 








,S 


10454 


8712 


6969 


5808 


5227 


4356 


34«4 


2904 


2489 


2178 


1936 


1742 






5^ 


9504 


7920 


6336 


5280 


4752 


3960 


3168 


2640 


2263 


1980 


1760 


i5»4 


1440 




6 


8712 


7260 


5808 


4840 


4356 


3630 


2904 


2420 


2074 


1865 


ibi3 


1452 


1320 


1210 



YIELD OF A GOOD CROP OF FARM PRODUCTS 
PER ACRE. (McKerrow.) 



Oats 50 bus. 

Corn (shelled) 50 " 

Barley 50 " 

Wheat (winter) 30 " 

Wheat (spring) 25 " 

Beans 15 " 



Rye 25 bus. 

Hay 2 tons. 

Potatoes 200 bus. 

Turnips 500 " 

Mangels 800 " 

Sugar beets 500 '* 



72 AGRICULTURE. 



V. HORTICULTURE. 

USUAL DISTANCES FOR PLANTING VEGETABLES, 

(Bailey.) 

Asparagus Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, i to 2 ft. apart in row. 

Beans, bush. . 2 to 3 ft. apart, i ft. apart in rows. 

'* pole. . . 3 to 4 ft. each way. 
Beet, early ... In drills 12 to 18 in. apart. 

" late " " 2 to 3 ft. '* 

Cabbage, early 16 X 28 in. to 18 X 30 in. 

late.. 2 X 3 ft. to 2^ X 3i ft. 

Carrot In drills i to 2 ft. apart. 

Cauliflower. . . 2 X 2 ft. to 2 X 3 ft. 

Celery Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, 6 to 9 in. in row. 

Corn, sweet . . " 3 to 3^ ft. apart, 9 in. to 2 ft. in row. 

Cucumber 4 to 5 ft. each way. 

Egg-plant 3 X 3 ft. 

Lettuce i X li or 2 ft. 

Melon, Musk. . 5 to 6 ft. each way. 

" Water.. 7 to 8 ft. each way. 

Onion In drills from 14 to 20 in. apart. 

Parsnip " " 18 in. to 3 ft. apart. 

Peas " " early kinds, usually in double row.* 6 

to 9 in. apart'; late, in single rows, 2 to 3 

ft. apart. 

Pepper 15 to 18 in. X 2 to 2^ ft. 

Potato ID to 18 in. X 2^ to 3 ft. 

Pumpkin 8 to lo ft. each way. 

Radish In drills, 10 to 18 in. apart. 

Rhubarb 2 to 4 ft. X 4 ft- 

Salsify In drills, i^ to 2 ft. apart. 

Spinach *' ", 12 to 18 in. apart. 

Squash 3 to 4 ft. X 4 ft- 

Sweet-potato. . 2 ft. X 3 to 4 ft. 

Tomato 4 ft. X 4 to 5 ft. 

Turnip In drills, i^ to 2i ft. apart. 



i 



i 



' HORTICULTURE. 73 

QUANTITY OF SEED OF VEGETABLES REQUIRED 
TO SOW AN ACRE. (Bailev.) 

Asparagus 4 or 5 lbs., or i oz. for 50 ft. 

of drill. 

Beans, dwarf, in drills i^ bushels. 

" pole " 10 to 12 quarts. 

Beet, " 5 to 6 lbs. 

Buckwheat, " ... i bushel. 

Cabbage, in beds to transplant, i lb. 

Carrot, in drills 3 to 4 lbs. 

Cauliflower i oz. of seed for 1000 plants. 

Celery i oz. of seed for 2000 plants. 

Corn, in hills 8 to 10 quarts. 

Cucumber, in hills 2 lbs. 

Cress, water, in drills 2 to 3 lbs. 

" upland, in drills 2 to 3 lbs. 

Egg-plant I oz. of seed for 1000 plants. 

Kale or sprouts 3 to 4 lbs. 

Lettuce i oz. of seed for 1000 plants. 

Melon, musk, in hills 2 to 3 lbs. 

" water, in hills 4 to 5 lbs. 

Mustard, broadcast ^ bushel. 

Onion, in drills 5 to 6 lbs. 

*• seed for sets, in drills. .. 30 lbs. 

" sets, in drills 6 to 12 bushels. 

Parsnip, in drills 4 to 6 lbs. 

Peas " I to 2 bushels. 

Potato (cut tubers) 7 bushels. 

Pumpkin, in hills 4 to 5 lbs. 

Radish, in drills 8 to 10 lbs. 

Sage " 8 to 10 lbs. 

Salsify ** 8 to lolbs. 

Spinach " 10 to 12 lbs. 

Squash, bush, in hills, 4 to 6 lbs. 

" running, in hills 3 to 4 lbs. 

Tomato, to transplant J lb. 

Turnip, in drills i to 2 lbs. 

* ' broadcast 3 to 4 lbs. 

Grass (mixed lawn) 2 to 4 bushels. 



74 



AGEICULTURE. 



DISTANCES APART FOR FRUIT TREES, 

Time Required to Bear Fruit, and Longevity. (Bailey.) 





Usual Distances. 


Time Required to 
Bear. 


Average 
Profitable 
Longevity 
under high 

Culture. 


Apples 


30 to 40 ft. each way. 
ID ft. each way 


3 yrs. Good crop in 
about 10 years 




" dwarf... 


25-40 yrs. 


Blackberry 


4 X 7 to 6 X 8 ft 


I yr. Good crop in 


8-12 yrs. 


Currant 


I yr. Good crop in 
2-3 years 

1 yr. Good crop in 
2-3 years 

2-3 yrs. Good crop 
2-3 years later 

2 yrs. Good crop in 
4 years .... 


Gooseberry 

Orange and I 
lemon f . . 

Peach 


4x5 feet 


20 years. 


25 to 30 ft. each way. 

16 to 20 ft. each way. 

20 to 30 ft. each way. 

20 to 25 ft. each way. 
16 to 20 ft. each way. 


20 years. 
50 or more. 




8-12 yr& 


Pears 


3 or 4 yrs. Fair crop 

in 6-12 years 

I to 3 yrs 

3 yrs. Good crop in 

5 to 6 years 

I yr. Good crop in 

2 or 3 years 

I yr. Heaviest crop 

usually in 2 years... 


Persimmon 

Plum 


50-75 yrs. 
25-40 yrs. 


Raspberry 


20-25 ys. 




8-12 yrs. 






3 years. 



HORTICULTURE. 75 

AVERAGE YIELDS PER ACRE OF VARIOUS 
CROPS. (Bailey.) 

Apples A tree 20 to 30 years old may be expected 

to yield from 25 to 40 bus. every alter- 
nate year. 

Artichoke 200 to 300 bus. 

Beans, green or 
snap 75 to 120 bus. 

Bean, Lima 75 to 100 bus. of dry beans. 

Beet 400 to 700 bus. 

Carrots 400 to 700 bus. 

Corn 50 to 7S bus., shelled. 

Cranberry 100 to 300 bus. ; 900 bus. have been reported. 

Cucumber About 150,000 fruits per acre. 

Currant 100 bus. 

Egg-plant I or 2 large fruits to the plant for the large 

sorts like Nev^r York purple, and from 3 
to 8 fruits for the smaller varieties. 

Gooseberry 100 bus. 

Grape 3 to 5 tons. Good raisin vineyards in 

California, 15 years old, will produce 
from 10 to 12 tons. 

Horse-radish. ... 3 to 5 tons. 

Kohlrabi 500 to 1000 bus. 

Onion, from seed 300 to 800 bus. ; 600 bus. is a large average 
yield. 

Parsnip 500 to 800 bus. 

Pea, green, in pod 100 to 150 bus. 

Peach In full bearing a peach-tree should produce 

from 5 to 10 bus. 

Pear A tree 20 to 25 years old should give from 

25 to 45 bus. 

Pepper 30,000 to 50,000 fruits. 

Plum 5 to 8 bus. may be considered an average 

crop for an average tree. 

Potato 100 to 300 bus. 

Quince 200 to 400 bus. 

Raspberry and 

blackberry. ... 50 to 100 bus. 

Salsify 200 to 300 bus. 

Spinach 200 barrels. 

Strawberry 75 to 250 or even 300 bus. 

Tomato 8 to 16 tons. 

Turnip 600 to 1000 bus. 



76 



AGRICULTURE. 



RELATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 

Dry Matter, and Starch Content of Potatoes. 

(Wolff.) 



Spec. 
Grav. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 


Starch 
Con- 
tent. 


Spec. 
Grav. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 


Starch r. 
Con- ^ 
tent. ^ 


pec. 
rav. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 


Starch 
Con- 
tent. 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 


1.080 


19.7 


13.9 


1. 107 


25-5 


19.7 I 


134 


31-3 


25-5 


.081 


19.9 


14. 1 


.108 


25-7 


19.9 


135 


31-5 


25-7 


.082 


20.1 


M-3 


.109 


25.9 


20.1 


136 


31-7 


25-9 


.083 


20.3 


14-5 


I. no 


26.1 


20.3 


137 


31-9 


26.1 


.084 


20.5 


14-7 


.III 


26.3 


20.5 


138 


32.1 


26.3 


•°fl 


20.7 


14.9 


.112 


26.5 


20.7 


139 


323 


26.S 


.086 


20.9 


15. 1 


•"3 


26.7 


20.9 I 


140 


325 


26.7 


.087 


21 2 


15-4 


.114 


20.9 


21. 1 


141 


32.8 


27.0 


.088 


21.4 


15-6 


•"5 


27.2 


21.4 


142 


33-0 


27.2 


.089 


21.6 


15.8 


.116 


27.4 


21.6 


143 


33-2 


27.4 


1.090 


21.8 


16.0 


.117 


27.6 


21.8 


144 


33-4 


27.6 


.091 


22.0 


16.2 


.118 


27.8 


22.0 


145 


33-6 


27.8 


.092 


22.2 


16.4 


.119 


28.0 


22.2 


146 


33-8 


28.0 


•093 


22.4 


16.6 


1. 120 


28.3 


22.5 


147 


34-^ 


283 


.094 


22.7 


16.9 


.121 


28.5 


22.7 


148 


34.3 


28.5 


•095 


22.9 


17. 1 


.122 


28.7 


22.9 


149 


34-5 


28.7 


.096 


23.1 


17-3 


.123 


28.9 


23.1 I 


150 


34-7 


28.9 


.097 


233 


175 


.124 


29.1 


23-3 


151 


34-9 


29.1 


.098 


23-5 


17.7 


•125 


29-3 


23-5 


152 


351 


29-3 


.099 


23-7 


17.9 


.126 


29-5 


23-7 


153 


35-4 


29.6 


l.IOO 


24.0 


18.2 


.127 


29.8 


24.0 


.154 


35.6 


29.8 


.101 


24.2 


18.4 


.128 


30.0 


24.2 


155 


35-8 


30.0 


.102 


24.4 


18.6 


.129 


30.2 


24.4 


156 


36.0 


30.2 


.103 


24.6 


18.8 


1. 130 


30- 4 


24.6 


157 


36.2 


30.4 


.104 


24.8 


19.0 


•131 


30.6 


24.8 


158 


36.4 


30.6 


.105 


250 


19.2 


.132 


30.8 


25.0 


159 


36.6 


30.8 


.106 


25.2 


19.4 


.133 


31.0 


25.2 I 


160 


36.9 


31-1. 



HORTICULTUKE. 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SUGAR CONTENT, AND 
BOILING-POINT OF MAPLE SUGAR. 

(Cooke and Hills.) 



1 


1 
> 

2 




rA 


ll 


i 


V 

3 . 
1° 


u 





S 


a c 3 

Sacu 






^z2 







si 


rt'o 


a 

.0 




Q 


(/2 


Q 


< 


H 


Pi 


25 


1.205 


44.9 


41 


215-0° F. 


lo.olbs. 


68 


26 


1. 215 


46.8 


43 


215.1 


10. 1 


72 


27 


1.226 


48.7 


45 


215-3 


10.2 


75 


28 


1,236 


50-5 


47 


215.6 


10.3 


78 


29 


1.246 


52.4 


49 


215-9 


10.4 


82 


30 


1-257 


54-3 


51 


216.2 


10.5 


85 


31 


1.268 


56.2 


53 


216.6 


10.6 


88 


32 


1.279 


5S.1 


54 


217.0 


10.7 


90 


33 


1.290 


60.0 


56 


217.4 


10.7 


93 


34 


1.302 


62.0 


58 


218. 1 


10.8 


97 


35 


1-313 


63-9 


60 


218.6 


10. q 


100 


36 


1-325 


65-8 


62 


219-5 


II. 


103 


37 


1-337 


67.8 


64 


220.3 


II. I 


107 


38 


1-350 


69.8 


66 


221.2 


II. 2 


no 


39 


1.362 


71.8 


68 


222.0 


II-3 


"3 


40 


1-374 


73-7 


70 


223.2 


II. 4 


117 


41 


1-387 


75-7 


72 


224.5 


II. 6 


120 


42 


1.400 


77-7 


74 


326.0 


11.7 


123 


43 


X.4X5 


79.8 


75 


227.8 


II. 8 


125 


44 


1.428 


81.8 


77 


229.7 


II. 9 


128 


45 


1.442 


83-9 


79 


231-8 


12.0 


132 


46 


1-457 


86.0 


81 


234.0 


12. 1 


135 


47 


1-471 


88.1 


83 


236.3 


12-3 


138 


48 


1.486 


90.2 


85 


238.7 


12.4 


142 



" The per cents of sugar given are calculated for a fairly 
good syrup. The relative values in the last column are 
based on these per cents, but will be nearly the same for 
all except the poorest of syrups. The relative value is 
made use of as follows: A weight of 11 pounds per gallon, 
and 35° Baume is taken as the standard; dividing the 
weight of the syrup by 11 gives the number of standard 
gallons; multiplying the price that is to be paid for 11- 
pound syrup by the relative value figure, and dividing by 
100, gives the price to be paid per standard gallon. 

"Example : If 75 cents a gallon is to be paid for ii-pound 



78 



AGRICULTURE. 



syrup, how much should be paid for 67] 
testing 31° by the Baume hydrometer? 
671 -J- II = 61 standard gallons. 

75 X 88 -^ 100 = 66 cents per gallon. 

61 X 66 = $41.26, price to be paid." 



pounds of syrup 



WEIGHT OF SUGAR OBTAINED FROM 100 LBS. 
OF MAPLE SYRUP 

Weighing 11 lbs. to the Gallon, -when Sugared Off at 
Different Temperatures. (Cooke and Huls.) 





be. 


1 


is 






XI 

h 


J5 


<U D 


v: 3 


■^ 3 


<u 3 


u^ 3 




ac/5j„- 


.t/5 


(Din 


f,^ 






(Lien 


^^ 


i"oO 
H 


^0 

< 


bfi'o 


F 


^0 


'^'o 
E 


1° 


° Fahr. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


° Fahr. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


232 


82.7 


82.0 


83.3 


238 


79-5 


78.5 


80.7 


233 


81.9 


80.5 


82.8 


239 


79.2 


78.4 


80.3 


234 


81.2 


80,0 


81.9 


240 


78.7 


78. 2 


79 7 


235 


80.8 


79-5 


81.6 


241 


78.5 


77-9 


79.3 


236 


80.5 


79-5 


Si. I 


242 


78.1 


77-4 


78.9 


237 


80.0 


79.0 


80.9 











HORTICULTURE. 



79 



TEMPERATURES TO AVHICH PERISHABLE 
GOODS MAY BE SUBJECTED WITHOUT IN- 
JURY. (U. S. Depaktiment of Agriculture.) 



Name of Article. 



Apples, in bbls 

" loose 

Apricots, baskets 

Asparagus 

Bananas 

Beans, snap 

Beets 

Cabbage, early or late 

Cantaloupes 

Cauliflower. 

Celery 

Cheese. 

Cranberries 

Cucumbers 

Eggs, bbrd or crated 

Fish 

Flowers 

Grapes 

Kale 

Leek 

Lemons 

Lettuce 

Mandarins .. 

Milk 

Olives, in bulk 

" " glass 

Onions, boxes 

Onions 

Oranges 

Parsley 

Parsnips 

Peaches,fresh,b'skets 

Peas 

Pineapples 

Plums 

Potatoes, Irish 

" sweet 

Radishes 

Rice 

Shrubs, roses, or trees 

Spinach 

Strawberries 

Tangerines 

Thyme 

Tomatoes, fresh 

Turnips, late 

Watermelons 



Lowest C 


utside 






Temperature. 


g 

•1 




1^ 
II 


2 


li"l 
Hf 


Remarks. 


55 
1^ 


m 

CoPh 


ll 




op. 


°F. 


op 


op 




20 


10 


-10 


75 


Covered with straw. 


28 


15 


— ID 


75 


Packed in straw. 


^■i 


24 


ID 


70 




28 


22 


.... 


70 


In boxes covered with mo9». 


5° 


32 




Qo 


Bulk or boxes with straw. 


32 


26 




6^ 


In barrels or crates. 


26 


20 




70 


In crates. 


2S 


20 


zero 


75 


Barrels or crates . 


^2 


25 


10 


80 




22 


15 




70 


In barrels with straw. 


10 


zero 




65 


Packed in crates. 


30 


25 


10 


75 




28 


20 


zero 






32 


20 




6s 


In boxes with moss. 


30 


20 


zero 


80 




ID 


zero 




65 


In barrels always iced. 


35 


20 


— 10 




Packeci in moss. 


34 


20 


zero 




Packed in cork. 


i-^ 


zero 




6% 


Packed in boxes or crates. 


28 


20 




6s 


Packed in boxes. 


32 


20 


10 


75 


In boxes or crates. 


26 


15 




70 


In boxes or crates. 


32 


20 


zero 


75 


In boxes. 


32 


28 


zero 


75 




28 


25 


zero 




In barrels. , 


2=; 


20 


zero 


. ... 




20 


15 


zero 






20 


ID 




80 


In barrels, boxes, or crates. 


28 


20 


zero 


80 


Baskets. boxes, bbls., or crates. 


32 


20 




75 


In baskets. 


32 


20 




70 


In baskets or barrels. 


32 


20 


10 


80 




32 


20 




80 


In baskets or barrels. 


32 


25 


zero 


75 


In barrels, crates, or in bulk. 


35 


32 


zero 


75 


In boxes with paper. 


35 


25 


10 


80 


In barrels or baskets. 


35 


28 


10 


80 


In barrels or baskets. 


20 


15 




65 


In baskets. 


20 


ID 




QO 


In baskets or sacks. 


35 


10 


— ID 




In canvas or sacking. 


15 






75 


In barrels or crates. 


33 


25 


-10 


6s 




25 


15 


zero 


70 


In boxes. 


20 


10 




QO 


In small baskets. 


33 


28 


10 


qo 




IS 


zero 




7S 


In barreN. 


20 


10 




85 


/n barrels and in bulk. 



80 



AGRICULTURE. 



TEMPERATURES INJURIOUS TO PLANTS. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

The following table shows the temperatures at which the 
plants mentioned are liable to receive injury from frost. 
The temperatures are, as nearly as possible, those of the 
air in contact with the plant itself. 



Plant or Fruit. 



Almonds 

Apples 

Apricots 

Asparagus 

Bananas 

Barley 

Beans 

Beets 

Cabbage , 

Cantaloupes 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Cucumbers 

Cymlings or squash, 

Flowers * 

Grapes 

Grape-fruit 

Lemons 

Lettuce 

Mandarins 

Oats 

Okra, 

Olives 

Onions 



Oranges + 

Parsnips 

Peaches 

Pears 

Peas 

Plums 

Potatoes: Irish 

Sweet 

Prunes 

Radishes 

Shrubs, trees, or roses. 

Spinach 

Strawberries 

Tangerines 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

Watermelons 

Wheat 

Walnuts, English 



In Bud. 



26-30 



In 

Blossom. 



28-32 



In Setting 
Fruit. 



At Other 
Times. 



25 
15-27 

30-31 
20-27 

28 

32 

30 

30 

28 

28 

28 



ji8* 

/24§ 

20 
(26* 



27 

29 

28 

25 

29 

31 

31 

29 

25 
30-26 

21 

30 

28 

31 

26 
28--JI 



* Depends on variety, t Injured at 2 higher if continued 4-6 houis. 

* Ripe. § Green. 



HOKTICULTUKE. 



81 



BEST TEMPERATURES FOR PRESERVING 
HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 

(Favii.le and Hall.) 



Product. 


Temperature, 
Degrees. 


Package. 


Time. 


Apples, summer 

Apples, winter 

Pears 


38 to 42 

32 to 35 

33 10 38 
36 to 38 
38 to 40 
38 to 40 
40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

38 to 42 

38 to 40 

35 

34 to 38 
34 to 40 
36 to 40 
34 


Barrels or boxes. 

Crates. 

In sawdust, in boxes. 

Crates. 

Quart boxes. 

Crates. 

Boxes. 


2 to 4 months. 

5 to 8 months. 
2 to 4 months. 
2 to 4 weeks. 

6 to 8 weeks. 
2 to 4 weeks. 
I to 3 weeks. 
8 to 12 weeks. 
8 to 12 weeks. 




Grapes .... 


Plums 


Berries and cherries.. 
Bananas 


Lemons, oranges 

Kiers raisins. 


Watermelons 


3 to 6 weeks. 
2 to 3 weeks. 
2 to 4 weeks. 
1 to 3 weeks. 




Crates. 

Boxes. 
Barrels. 

Boxes. 






Celery 







Onions 




Asparagus, cabbage.. 






THE PRESERVATION OF SOFT FRUITS FOR 
EXHIBITION PURPOSES. 

(Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada.) 

To preservestrawberries, raspberries, and other soft fruits, 
the following mixtures are recommended. The alcohol is 
not necessary except where the bottles will be exposed to 
frost. The chemicals mentioned in the list may be obtained 
at any drugstore. 

General Directions. — Select the finest specimens of the 
fruit both as to form and size. Handle them carefully to 
avoid all bruising, and place them in bottles, arranging the 
specimens so as to show them to the best advantage. Fill 
each bottle to the neck with fruit, then pour on the fluid 
recommended, filling the bottles to within half an inch of 
the stopper so as to entirely cover the fruit. Then place 
the stopper in the bottle and run a little beeswax or paraf- 
fin over the joint to make it air-tight. Tie the stopper 
down with a piece of strong cotton and attach to each bottle 



82 AGRICULTURE, 

a label containing the following particulars : Name of the 
variety of fruit, name and address of the grower. Write 
also in each case in one corner of the label the letter sug- 
gested to indicate the fluid which has been used. Wrap the 
bottles in paper to exclude the light, and preserve in a cellar 
or other cool place until required for shipment. Strawber- 
ries and raspberies should be cut from the plants or bushes 
with a pair of scissors, leaving a short piece of stem at- 
tached to each. 

Fluid no. i. — Formalin (formaldehyde), one pound (i6 
oz.) ; water, 44 pounds ; alcohol, 5 pints. Allow the mix- 
ture to stand, and should there be any sediment, pour oft 
the clear liquid and filter the remainder through filtering- 
paper. This two-per-cent. solution of formalin has been 
found very useful for preserving strawberries so as to give 
them a natural appearance. 

In each case where this fluid is used, mark F on one 
corner of the label. 

Fluid No. 2, — A solution of boric acid in the proportion 
of two per cent. Dissolve one pound of boric (boracic) acid 
in 45 pounds of water, agitate until dissolved, then add 5 
pints of alcohol. If the fluid is not clear, allow it to stand 
and settle, when the clear upper portion may be poured off 
and the remainder filtered. 

In each case where this fluid is used, mark B on one 
corner of the label. 

Fluid No, 3, — A solution of zinc chlorid in the propor- 
tion of three per cent. Dissolve one-half pound of zinc 
chlorid in 15 pounds of water, agitate until dissolved, then 
add if pints of alcohol. Allow the mixture to stand until 
settled, then pour off the clear fluid and filter the remainder. 

In each case where this fluid is used, mark Z on one 
corner of the label. 

Fluid No. 4. — Sulfurous acid, i pint ; water, 8 pints ; 
alcohol, I pint. Allow the mixture to stand, and should 
there be any sediment, pour off the clear liquid and filter 
the remainder. 

In each case where this fluid is used, mark S on the 
corner of the label. 



HORTICULTURE. 83 

List of Fruits with the Names of Preservatives to be Used in 
Each Case. 

(Where two fluids are named either may be used, but the 
first named is preferred.) 

Strawberries. — Solution No. i, formalin. 

Raspberries, Red. — No. 2, boric acid ; No. i, formalin. 

Raspberries, White. — No. 4, sulfurous acid ; No. 3, zinc 
chlorid. 

Raspberries, Black. — No. 2, boric acid. 

Blackberries. — No. 2, boric acid ; No. i, formalin. 

Cherries, Red and Black. — No. i, formalin ; No. 2, boric 
acid. 

Cherries, White. — No. 4, sulfurous acid. 

Currants, Red. — No. i, formalin ; No. 2, boric acid. 

Currants, White. — No. 4, sulfurous acid ; No. 3, zinc 
chlorid. 

Currants, Black. — No. 2, boric acid. 

Gooseberries. — No. i, formalin ; No. 2, boric acid. 

Apples, Green and Russet. — No. 3, zinc chlorid. 

Apples, more or less Red. — No. 2, boric acid. 

Apples, White and Yellow. — No. 4, sulfurous acid. 

Pears, Russet. — No. 3, zinc chlorid. 

Pears, Green or Yellow.— No. 4, sulfurous acid. 

Plums, dark-colored varieties. — No. i, formalin ; No. 2, 
boric acid. 

Plums, Green or Yellow. — No. 4, sulfurous acid. 

Peaches, Apricots, Nectarines, or Quinces. — No. 4, sulfur- 
ous acid ; No. 3, zinc chlorid. 

Grapes, Red or Black. — No. i, formalin ; No. 2, boric 
acid. 

Grapes, Green or Yellow. — No. 4, sulfurous acid. 



84 AGRICULTURE. 



VI. SEEDS. 

SEED-TESTING FOR THE FARMER. 

By the late Gilbert H. Hicks, of U. S. Department of Agriculture.* 

Not less important than good soil and suitable cultivation 
is seed of the best obtainable quality. In no feature of 
farm practice is niggardly economy or lack of proper atten- 
tion more productive of disappointment and loss than in 
the failure to provide proper seed for sowing. The market 
gardener is fully alive to this fact, and makes the purchase 
of desirable seed his foremost care. He wants not only 
seed which will grow, but also that which will produce an 
even stand and yield a large crop of the very best vegetables. 
The matter of paying a few cents or even a dollar extra 
per pound is to him of no significance, since he knows by 
long experience that the increased value of his crop will 
far outweigh the extra cost of the seed. 

With many farmers this care in the selection of seed is 
often lacking. Frequently the land is all tilled and ready 
for sowing before the seed is bought. It is then too late 
to give it a careful preliminary test, even if the owner de- 
sired to do so. This results very often in a poor stand, 
perhaps in a failure of the crop, or in the scattering of 
hordes of weeds all over the farm, which usurp the place 
of the cultivated plants, and cost infinite trouble in their 
eradication. This is especially noticeable in the case of 
the clovers, grasses, and other forage plants. No matter 
how poor the seed turns out to be, after once sown it is too 
late to secure any redress from the seedsman. Besides, 
there are very few places in this country where one can 
get seed tested in order that its real value may be ascer- 
tained before sowing. It becomes, then, a matter of great 
importance to the farmer to provide himself with some 
simple but efficient means for testing his seed before it is 
sown. 

All seed which is to be used for spring sowing should be 
procured whenever possible in the previous fall or winter. 

* Revised by A. J. Pieters, in Charge of Pure Seed Investigations, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, 



SEEDS. 85 

The long winter months will give ample opportunity for 
close examination of the seed, and if any of it be found of 
inferior quality, as will not infrequently prove to be the case, 
there will be plenty of time to replace it with a desirable 
article. In all cases seed should be bought of the most re- 
liable seedsmen. In many instances it will pay to get seed 
from the large dealers, as they have first-class opportu- 
nities for handling the very best seed in the country. The 
extra cost for carriage will be a small item compared with 
the chance for obtaining good seed. 

No matter from what source the seed is obtained, nor 
how reliable the dealer, every farmer should test each lot 
of seed he expects to plant. Besides learning its quality, 
he will often obtain valuable information concerning the 
depth, temperature, and amount of moisture needed, etc. 
Furthermore, if the seed fails to come up well, the planter 
will have some intelligent data for ascertaining the reason, 
and will not be obliged to depend entirely upon the state- 
ment of seed catalogues, which convey the impression that 
failure to germinate is more likely to be the fault of the 
outdoor conditions than of the seed itself. 

Good seed is marked by three characteristics : purity — 
or freedom from foreign matter, whether seeds of weeds 
or other plants ; vitality— ox capacity for sprouting under 
favorable conditions ; and genuineness — or trueness to 
name. If any of these qualities be lacking, the seed is un- 
worthy of general trial. 

Purity. — Most vegetable seeds, especially if grown in 
America, are quite free from admixture. Seed of the cab- 
bage family, however, if grown abroad, and sometimes 
that of American origin, may contain a mixture of wild 
mustard or similar seed, often so near like the good seed 
as to be almost indistinguishable from it. 

Clover and grass seed is very likely to contain more or 
less seed of noxious weeds or inferior grasses ; hence a 
careful purity test is necessary in such cases. Hairy vetch 
and other leguminous forage seeds, excepting the clovers, 
generally come from Europe and are frequently impure. 
Often it will require considerable care to detect impurities 



86 AGRICTJLTUKE. 

in the seeds of forage plants, and in case of any doubt 
samples of such seed should be sent to the nearest experi- 
ment station or to the Department of Agriculture for ex- 
amination. 

Purity tests are usually made by weighing out a few 
ounces of seed which has been well stirred up so as to 
make the sample uniform. This seed is placed upon a 
pane of glass under which is a piece of light-colored paper, 
and the sample is carefully gone over seed by seed with a 
small forceps until all the impurities are separated out. 
After again weighing, the percentage of impurity is easily 
obtained. If the impurity consists of chaff or dirt, the loss 
will consist only in paying for something which will not 
grow. This will render necessary the sowing of more than 
the usual amount of seed to the acre. If weed seeds are 
present, there will be greater or less loss according to the 
character of the weeds. Such seeds as Canada thistle, 
dodder. Russian thistle, chess, wild mustard, cockle, plan- 
tain, black medic, daisy, penny-cress, wild carrot, wild 
oats, and a few others, are serious pests. Every farmer 
should be able to recognize these weed seeds, and avoid all 
seed which contains any of them even in small amounts. 
He should also be familiar with the ordinary grass seeds of 
trade, such as June grass, orchard grass, the common fes- 
cues, red top, tall meadow oat grass, etc. Grass-seed 
mixtures almost invariably contain a large proportion of 
seed of inferior, if not worthless, species, dirt, and chaff, 
and should be avoided. It is much better to find out what 
grasses are adapted to one's fields or pastures and to buy 
such seed separately, mixing it at home. 

If scales are not at hand, the amount of pure seed in a 
given sample can be approximately learned by placing the 
pure seed in a small bottle with the impurities in another 
bottle of similar shape and size. The names of the foreign 
seeds may be learned from some botanist or experiment 
station.* 

* The following statida^-ds of purity are adopted by the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture : 
Asparagus, beans, buckwheat, cabbage, cauliflower, celery. 



SEEDS. 87 

After determining the per cent of pure seed in a sample, 
the gcrminative ability should be ascertained. This is even 
more important. One can judge fairly well of the purity 
of seed by a casual inspection, but no one can tell by its 
looks whether a seed is capable of sprouting or not. Con- 
sidering the great amount of labor and expense involved, 
it is surprising that so few farmers test their vegetable and 
field seeds before they are sown. 

Even fresh seed is sometimes incapable of germination 
through improper care in harvesting or cleaning. Nor 
can fresh seed be told by its appearance with certainty. 
Add to this the fact that old seed is frequently offered for 
sale, and there is no lack of reason for testing the sprout- 
ing capacity of the seed one intends to sow. 

If the heat and moisture are properly controlled, seed- 
testing will be found a very simple matter. Seventy to 
eighty degrees Fahrenheit must be maintained during the 
day, with a fall of not more than twenty degrees at night, 
and the seed must be kept constantly damp, but not wet. 
A good plan is to plant a hundred seeds of average quality 
— that is, an average number of large, small, plump, and 
shrivelled ones, etc. — in moist soil in a box or in a small 
flower-pot which is set inside of a large pot also containing 
soil. Water as needed is added from time to time in the 
larger pot and the whole is kept covered so as to prevent 
evaporation and sudden cooling. When the seeds begin 
to come up, the pots should be exposed to the light. After 
about two weeks for most seeds the seedlings are counted 
and the percentage of sprouts ascertained. If the soil has 
been previously heated to kill all weed seeds, and proper 
precautions have been taken, such a test will give a good 
indication of the value of the seed. To make sure, a dupli- 

collards, Indian corn, cow pea, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, 
melon, millet (common and pearl), oats, okra, onion, peas, 
pumpkin, radish, rutabaga, salsify, squash, tomato, turnip, 

vetch (hairy) 99 per cent. 

Alfalfa, beets, crimson clover, red clover, cotton, Kafir corn, 

parsley 98 " " 

Parsnip 97 " " 

Hungarian brome grass, carrot, white clover, alsike clover. . .95 " " 
June grass, poa compressa 90 " " 



88 AGRICULTURE. 

cate lot of one hundred seeds should be tested at the same 
time under the same conditions and the results compared. 
If the variation exceeds ten per cent, the tests should be 
repeated until the source of error is discovered. Grasses 
and very fine seed will require more care than other kinds. 
Such seed should be barely covered with soil, while in all 
cases too deep planting must be avoided. In testing grass 
seeds, except timothy, care must be taken that the heavier 
chaff, which looks like good seed, but does not contain a 
grain, is not counted with the good seed. Every seed 
should be gently pressed with the finger-nail or with a 
small penknife to determine whether or not it contains a 
grain. The chaff should count as impurity, but should not 
be tested for germination. Some hard-coated seeds may 
be soaked a few hours in warm water, but as a usual thing 
it is better not to do so. 

Seeds of clovers and most vegetables can be easily ger- 
minated between two folds of damp flannel cloth placed be- 
tween two plates. Such tests permit frequent inspection 
of the seed, which should be thrown away as fast as it 
germinates, count being kept of the same. Damp blotters, 
porous dishes, and various kinds of especially prepared 
germinating apparatus are sometimes used in seed-testing. 
The amount of moisture to be given varies greatly with 
the variety of seed and can be best learned by experience. 
In general, quick-sprouting seeds, like clover, cabbage, 
radish, etc., will stand more moisture than those varieties 
which sprout more slowly. 

To make sure of the vitality of seed it is better to test it 
in the soil, as previously suggested, and also by the cloth 
or plate method. Soil tests should be continued a few days 
longer than those made between cloth or blotters. There 
is considerable difference of opinion as to the standards of 
germination to which first-class seed should attain. Those 
in use at present by the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
are given in the first table on page 89. While first-class 
seeds should reach the standards referred to, it may be said 
that seed which falls as much as ten per cent below them 
need not be rejected as bad. 



SEEDS. 



89 



TABLE OF GERMINATION STANDARDS. 

(U. S. Dept. of. Agriculture.) 



Seed. 




Seed. 


90 
80 
94 
92 

50 
75 
75 
80 
50 
80 
80 
50 
90 
90 
90 
85 
90 
90 
90 
90 
90 
95 
90 


Seed. 




Asparagus 

Beans, bush 

lima . ... 


85 
95 
95 
^50 

tl 

95 
95 
95 

ll 

P 
85 

To 

90 
95 
80 
95 
90 
90 
90 
90 


Cucumber 

Egg-plant 


Okra 


75 
75 
98 
85 
90 

95 

il 

90 
89 
90 
90 
90 

88 


Onion 


Beet 


Gherkin 

Grasses: 

Canada blue 

Fowl meadow. . . 

Johnson 

Hungarian brome 

Kentucky blue. . 

Meadow fescue . . 

Orchard 

Texas blue 

Timothy 

Kafir corn 

Kohl-rabi 


Parsnip 

Peas 


Borecole 




Pepper 


Brussels sprouts. . 

Buckwheat 

Cabbage 


Radish 

Rape 

Rhubarb 

Rutabaga 

Salsify 

Sorghum 

Spinach 


Carrot 


Cauliflower 

Celeriac 


Celery 

Chicory 


Clover, alfalfa 


Spurry 


" red 


Leek 


Sunflower 

Tobacco 


" scarlet 


Lettuce ... . ... 




Lupin, yellow 

Melon 

Millet, common 

" pearl 

Mustard 

Oats 




90 
95 
90 
95 


Collards 


Turnip 

Vetch, hairy 

Wheat 




Cotton 




Cress 











NUMBER, WEIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS, AND 
AMOUNT TO SOW PER ACRE. 

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

[Columns i, 2, 3, and 4 are compiled from " The Best Forage Plants," by 
Stebler and Schroeter. The figures in column 5 are obtained by multi- 
plying the amount of standard quality of seed required (col. 2) by the retail 
price quoted in N. Y. catalogues. The weight of 10,000,000 grains (col. 6) 
is obtained by dividing this quantity by the number of seeds in one pound 
(col. I).] 







(i) 


(2) 


.<'L 


(4) 


(5) 


(6) 






ja-o 


f- w. 


r! « 45 










Name. 




ount to S 
er Acre i 
., Standa 
Quality. 


Amount to S 

per Acre i 

lbs of Pure G 

minating Se 


u 




w <" 


§. 




15^ 


< ^ 


^03 




^^0 


I 


Redtop (Agrostis alba) . . . 


603,000 


9-7 


7.00 


8-32 


|i.4S 


16.58 


2 


Reed canary grass (Pha- 
















laris arundinacea) 


660,000 


21.0 


12.00 


44-48 


7-35 


iS'^S 


3 


Smooth -stalked meadow 
















grass (Poa pratensis) 


2,400,000 


17-5 


8.40 


12-20 


2.10 


4.17 


4 


Rough -stalked meadow 
















grass (Poa trivialis) 


3,000,000 


19-5 


8.75 


11-17 


4.88 


3-33 



00 



AGRICULTURE. 



NUMBER, AV EIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS, AnB 
A3IOUNT TO SOW PER ACl^^!,— Continued. 



Name. 



Sheep's fescue (Festuca 

ovina) 

Various-leaved fescue (Fes- 
tuca heterophylla) 

Creeping fescue (Festuca 

rubra) 

Awnless brome grass (Bro- 

mus inermis) 

Perennial rye grass(Lolium 

perenne) 

Italian rye grass (Lolium 

italicum) 

Orchard grass (Dactylis 

glomerata). 

Meadow fescue (Festuca 

pratensis) 

Meadow oat grass (Arrhe 

natherum avenaceum). . 
Yellow oat grass (Trisetum 

flavescens) 

Velvet grass (Holcus lana 

tus) 

Timothy(Phleum pratense) 
Meadow foxtail (Alopecu 

rus pratensis) 

Vernal grass (Anthoxan 

thum odoratum) 

Crested dog's tail (Cynosu. 

rus cristatus) 

Alsike clover (Trifolium 

hybrid um) 

Sainfoin (Onobrychis sa 

tiva) , 

Red clover (Trifolium pra- 
tense) 

White clover (Trifolium 

repens) — 

Common kidney vetch (An 

thyllus vulneraria) , 

Alfalfa, or lucern (Medi- 

cago sativa) 

Trefoil (Medicago lupulina) 
Bird's-foot trefoil <Lotus 

corniculatus) 

Officinal goat's rue (Galega 

officinalis) 



(i) 



1) u) j; 



680,000 

400,000 

600,000 

137,000 

336,800 

285,000 

579,500 

318,200 

159,000 

2,045,000 

1,304,000 
1,170,500 

907,000 

924,000 

1,127,000 

707,000 

22,500 

279,000 

740,000 

154,000 

209,500 
328,000 

375,000 

62,000 



(3) 

C/3.S rt 

2 P c >< 

i t Jo 



28.0 

33-5 

42-5 

44.0 

S5-0 

48.5 

35-0 

52.0 

70.0 

29.0 

22.0 
16.0 

23.0 

30.0 

25.0 

12.3 

78.0* 

18.0 

10.5 

17-5 

25.0 
18.0 

II. o 

22.0 



(3) 


(4) 


(5) 


(6) 


Amount to Sow 
per Acre in lbs 
of Pure Ger- 
minating Seed. 


u 

bis: 




^ol 

|£0 


12.60 


10-15 


$4.20 


14-85 


1950 




8.38 


25.00 


13.00 


10-15 


8.50 


16.67 


35 -60 


10-14 


8.80 


72.99 


38.50 


18-30 


4.95 


29.70 


32.40 


12-24 


3.56 


35- 10 




12-16 


5.60 


17.25 




12-26 


7.80 


31.42 


34-3° 


10 


12.60 


62.89 


4.64 


5-5 


24-65 


4.89 


8.80 
14.00 


6.5 

48 


4.40 
1.50 


7.66 
8.54 


6.21 


6 


6.21 


11.02 


7.80 




15.00 


10.82 


13-50 


20-32 


7.50 


8.87 


9.00 


94-100 


1.60 


14.14 


60.84* 


40 


6.25 


444.44 


15.84 


64 


2.50 


35.84 


7-50 


63 


2.94 


13.51 


15.00 


60-64 


4.58 


67-15 


22.00 
14.75 


61-63 
64-66 


3-25 
2.16 


48.56 
30.48 


4.67 


60 


4.40 


26.66 


6.90 




4.14 


161.29 



* Unshelled. 



SEEDS. 91 

NOTES ON ADAPTABILITY AND USES OP PRE- 
CEDING GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 

No. I. Requires moist climate or damp soil. Best propa- 
gated by transplanting small turf cuttings in autumn. 
Valuable for late pasturage or lawns in the New England 
and Middle States. Use 5-10 per cent in mixtures. 

No. 2. Adapted to stiff, wet lands and flooded fields. 
Requires moisture. Valuable hay when cut young, and 
well suited for binding loose banks near running water or 
for forming a firm sod on marshy ground. 

No. 3. Grows best on strongly calcareous soils. Well 
adapted for pasture, and makes a good bottom grass for 
meadows. An excellent lawn grass. 

No. 4. Should be sown only on moist, fertile, and shel- 
tered soils in mixtures. 

No. 5. Light, dry soils, especially those which are poor, 
shallow, and silicious. Valuable bottom grass and for sheep 
pastures. Sown only in mixtures. 

No. 6. Best on moist, low lands containing humus and 
sandy loams. Withstands drought; useful in pasture; un- 
important for hay. Alone it makes no continuous turf. 

No. 7. Valuable pasture or bottom grass. Withstands 
drought; endures both cold and shade. On poor land, es- 
pecially moist sands and railway banks, serves to bind the 
soil. Product small. 

No. 8. Valuable for light soils, especially in regions sub- 
ject to extremes of heat or long periods of drought. Used 
alone or in mixtures for permanent meadows and pastures. 

No. 9. Excellent and lasting pasture grass for heavy soils 
in moist, cool climates. On light, dry soils disappears after 
the second year. Rarely sown alone. 

No. 10. Excellent for rich and rather moist lands. Re- 
garded in Europe as one of the best for hay. Lasts only 
two or three years. 

No. ir. Grows well on any soil, excepting that which is 
very wet; withstands shade. Affords a large amount of 
aftermath. Valuable alike for hay and pasturage. 

No. 12. Thrives in either dry or wet soils. Valuable hay 
or pasture grass. 

( 



93 AGRICULTURE. 

No. 13. Thrives on moist, loamy sands or light clayS 
which are not too moist, and marls. Spring most favorable 
seed-time. Valuable in the South for hay and winter 
pasture. 

No. 14. Valuable for temporary or permanent pastures. 
Thrives on marly or calcareous soil, in all light land rich in 
humus. 

No. 15. Sometimes sown on light, thin soils unsuited 
for more valuable sorts. Rarely used excepting in mix- 
tures. 

No. 16. Best known and most extensively cultivated for 
hay. Sown alone or mixed with redtop or clover. Suc- 
ceeds best on moist loams or clays. On dry ground the 
yield is light. 

No. 17. Endures cold. Likes strong soil, stiff loam, or 
clay. One of the best grasses for land under irrigation. 
Very early. Two to four pounds in mixtures for permanent 
pastures. 

No. 18. Grows on almost any kind of soil; sown only in 
mixtures, i to 2 pounds, with permanent pasture or meadow 
grasses. 

No. 19. Especially adapted for loams, light clays, marls, 
and moist, loamy sands. Moist climates are most suitable. 
Withstands drought and thrives well in shade. Nutritive 
value high. Used in mixtures to form bottom grass either 
in pasture or hay. 

No. 20. Grows on strongest clay or peaty soil; peculiarly 
adapted to damp ground. Bears heavy frosts without 
injury. Sown in August or February. 

No. 21. Requires good and open subsoil, free from water. 
Sown alone, from end of March to beginning of May. 

No. 22. Succeeds best in rich, loamy soil, on good clays, 
and on soils of an alluvial nature. A standard fodder 
plant. 

No. 23. Thrives on mellow land containing lime, and on 
all soils rich in humus. Resists drought. Generally used 
in mixtures for pastures or lawns. 

No. 24. Cultivated for grazing; on warm soils, if manur^c!' 



SEEDS. 



93 



and of proper depth. Hardy; resists drought. Sheep, 
goats, and horned cattle eat it greedily. 

No. 25. Grows well on any calcareous soil having a per- 
meable subsoil. Especially adapted to the warm and dry 
regions of the West and Southwest. Requires irrigation. 

No. 26. Any soil containing sufficient moisture and lime 
is suitable. Most successful on clay marls. Cultivated 
only where the better kinds of clover cannot be grown. 

No. 27. Thrives on dry or moist, sandy or clayey soils. 
Well suited to dry lands at high elevations, though poor. 

No. 28. Excellent fodder plant for warm, sheltered situ- 
ations. Thrives only in deep soil, and when subsoil is not 
wet. 



VITALITY OF SEEDS IF PROPERLY KEPT. 



Turnips 5 years 

Rape 5 

Pumpkin 5 

Peas 3 

Beans 3 

Clover 3 

Oats 3 

Barley 3 



(McKerrow.) 

Wheat 2 years 

Buckwheat 2 " 

Corn 2 " 

Timothy 2 " 

Rye 2 " 

Flax 2 " 

Millet 2 " 

Orchard-grass 2 " 



94 



AGEICULTURE. 



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ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 99 



VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 

TREATMENTS FOR INJURIOUS INSECTS AND 
FUNGOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS. 

By Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
The value of the following treatments for preventing injury 
to crops from insects and fungous diseases has been proved by 
abundant experience. It is essential that the treatments be 
given promptly and thoroughly. In the case of fungous dis- 
eases, it is generally essential that the applications be made 
before the disease appears, since they are preventive, rather than 
curative. The treatments considered most important are printed 
in italics. As a rule, those not so printed need be given only 
in seasons or localities in which the attack is serious.* 

Formulas. 

No. I. Bordeaux Mixture. — Places pounds of copper sulfate 
in a cloth sack and suspend this over night in a wood vessel 
containing 4 gallons of water, immersing the sack. In another 
wood vessel slake 4 pounds of fresh lime in as many gallons of 
water. When the lime is cool, pour it and the copper sulfate 
solution into a barrel and add enough water to make 45 gallons. 
Apply at once with a force-pump, with spraying nozzle, stir- 
ring frequently during the application. 

No. 2. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. — Dissolve I ounce of 
copper carbonate in 3 pints of strong ammonia and add this 
solution to 25 gallons of water. Apply as in No. i. No stir- 
ring is required. 

No. 3. Copper Sulfate Solution. — Dissolve, as directed in No. 
I, I pound of copper sulfate in 15 gallons of water. Apply 
as in No 2. 

No. 4. Stir 4 ounces of Paris green in 40 gallons of water, 
and add \ pound of fresh lime, slaked in 2 quarts of hot 
water. Apply as in No. i. 

No. 5. Bordeaux Mixture {^o. i), with Paris green added at 
the rate of i ounce to 10 gallons. Apply as in No. i. 

* The following scheme for treating crops is after a plan published by 
the late Mr. E. G. Lodemann of Cornell University, in Trans. N. Y. State 
Agricultural Society for 1893, pp. 176-179. 



100 



AGRICULTURE. 



No. 6. London purple , 4 ounces, very thoroughly mixed with 
25 pounds of land plaster. Apply with a sprinkling-box. 

No. 7. Mix I ounce of fresh powdered white hellebore in 3 
gallons of water. Apply at once with force-pump or sprinkling 
pot. 

No. 8. Kerosene Emulsion. — Dissolve \ pound hard, or I 
quart of soft soap in 2 quarts of boiling water; place i pint 
of kerosene in a tin can; pour the boiling-hot solution into 
this, cork, and shake rapidly for i minute. Before using, 
dilute with its own bulk of warm soft-water. Apply as in 
No. 2. 

No. 9. Mix I pound of fresh Fyrethrtim powder with an 
equal bulk of air-slaked lime in a b(-ttle or tin can; cork 
tightly and leave 24 hours before use. Apply in still air, 
with sprinkling-box or powder-bellows. 

No. 10. Air-slaked lime applied with a sprinkling-box. 

No. II. Cut small cards from thin tarred paper, slit one side 
to the centre, and make a short cross-cut near the end of the 
slit, as in drawing. 




No. 12. Corrosive Sublimate Solution. — Dissolve l\ ounces 
of corrosive sublimate in 2 gallons of hot water, and pour 
this solution into 15 gallons of cold water. Use wood, 
earthen, or glass vessels. 

No. 13. Potassium Sulfid Solution. — Dissolve \ ounce of 
potassium sulfid (liver of sulfur, sulfuret of potassium) 
in I quart of warm (not hot) water, and add this solution to 
3 quarts of cold water. Apply as in No. 2. 



ENEillKS OF FARM CROPS. 



101 






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104 



AGRICULTURE. 



A CHEAP ORCHARD-SPRAYING OUTFIT. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

Spraying to control various insect pests, particularly those 
of the orchard and garden, has reached so satisfactory and 
inexpensive a basis that it is recognized by every progres- 
sive farmer as a nec- 
essary feature of the 
year's operations, and 
in the case of the apple, 
pear, and plum crops 
the omission of such 
treatment means seri- 
ous loss. The conse- 
quent demand for 
spraying apparatus has 
been met by all the 
leading pump manufac- 
turers of this country, 
and ready-fitted appa- 
ratus, consisting of 
pump, spray tank or 
barrel, and nozzle with 
hose, are on the market 
in numerous styles p.nd 
at prices ranging from 
$20 upward. The cost of a spraying outtit for orchard 
work may, however, be considerably reduced by purchasing 
merely the pump and fixtures, and mounting them at home 
on a strong barrel. An apparatus of this sort, representing 
a style that has proven very satisfactory in practical ex- 
perience, is illustrated in the accompanying figure. It is 
merely a strong pump with an air-chamber to give a steady 
stream, provided with two discharge hose-pipes. One of 
these enters the barrel and keeps the water agitated and 
the poison thoroughly intermixed, and the other and longer 
one is the spraying hose and terminates in the nozzle. The 
spraying-hose should be about 20 feet long, and may be 
fastened to a light pole, preferably of bamboo, to assist in 




Orchard-spraying Apparatus. 



ENEMIES OE EARM CROPS. 105 

directing the spray. The nozzle should be capabl- of 
breaking the water up into a fine mist spray, so as to wet 
the plant completely with the least possible expenditure of 
liquid. The two more satisfactory nozzles are those of the 
Nivcr and the Vermorel type. A suitable pump with nozzle 
and hose may be obtained of any pump manufacturer or 
hardware dealer at a cost of from I13 to $15. If one with 
brass fittings be secured it will also serve for the application 
of fungicides. The outfit outlined above may be mounted 
on a cart or wagon, the additional elevation secured in this 
way facilitating the spraying of trees, or for more extended 
operations, the pump may be mounted on a large water 
tank. 

PREVENTION OF OATS-SMUT. (Goff.) 

The smut of oats, which causes an annual loss to the 
farmers of the United States amounting in the aggregate to 
millions of dollars, may be entirely prevented by treating 
the seed oats before sowing, at a cost for labor and materials 
which need not exceed five cents per acre of oats sown. 

Two methods of treatment have been found satisfactory. 
These we will call for convenience the Fo7-malin l^reatment 
and the Hot-water 7'reatment. The first has the advantage 
of being the simpler, but it requires a small cash outlay for 
materials. The second requires no materials or apparatus 
except what the farmer already has, unless it be a good 
thermometer. 

The Forvialin T^-eatment. — Soak the seed oats one hour 
in a solution of formalin, made by adding one ounce of 
formalin to every 3I gallons of water. Place the water in 
a barrel, or other convenient vessel, add the formalin to it, 
and pour in one and one-half bushels of seed oats for each 
3| gallons of the solution. At the end of one hour, draw 
off or pour off the part of the solution that is not absorbed 
by the oats, and spread the oats on a clean floor to dry. 
They should be shoveled over once or twice a day until dry 
enough to sow. 



106 AGRICULTURE. 

Formalin is a liquid that may be purchased at drugstores. 
Ask iox forty-per-cent formalin. It costs from 50 to 60 cents 
per pint, and a pint contains enough for about 30 bushels of 
seed oats. It is sold in smaller quntities at 10 cent per 
ounce. If formalin is purchased in considerable quantities, 
it will be well to have the druggist weigh out one ounce in 
a small bottle, and then mark on the bottle the height to 
which the ounce reaches. This bottle may then be used as 
a measure in adding the formalin to the water. 

The Hot-water Treatment consists in soaking the seed 
10 minutes in water at a temperature of 133° F. Heat the 
water in a large kettle, and close by sink a barrel in the 
ground to within a foot of the top. Pour a part of the hot 
water into the barrel, and take the temperature with a good 
thermometer. Then add either cold or hot water, stirring 
it in the mean time, until it shows a temperature of 138°. 
Put about a bushel of oats in a coarse gunnysack, tie this 
to one end of a pole and rest the pole over a post, thus mak- 
ing a lever, by which the sack of oats may be easily raised 
or lowered. Now dip the sack of oats into the water in the 
barrel. The water will be immediately cooled, and hot 
water must be added to keep the temperature about 133". 
Let one person attend to the temperature, and another to 
handling the oats. Keep the oats moving in the barrel. 
Take them out at the end of 10 minutes, dip the sack at 
once in cold water, then spread on a clean floor to dry. 
Shovel them over three times a day for a few days, when 
they may be sown with a force drill ; or in two or three 
hours they may be sown broadcast. As the oats absorb 
considerable water, it is necessary to sow about half a 
bushel more per acre than when untreated seed is used. 
This is on the basis of two and one-half bushels per acre. 
Two men in one day can treat enough seed to sow twe-nty 
acres. 

This treatment may also be applied with satisfactory 
results for the prevention of smut of other cereals than 
oats, and for prevention of potato-scab, as will be seen from 
the following article. 



ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 107 



THE FORMALIN TREATMENT FOR THE PRE- 
VENTION OF THE SMUTS OF CEREAL GRAINS 
AND OF POTATO-SCAB. (Bolley.) 

For Wheats Oats, Barley, and Millet. -:-\Jse formalin (40 per 
cent solution of formaldehyle) at the rate of i pound of 
the liquid to 45 or 50 gallons of water. Use any method 
of wetting the grain most suited to your means. Sprink- 
ling and shoveling is as effective as dipping, if carefully 
done. 

It is well to treat one day and allow the grain to remain 
piled up overnight, thus allowing the fumes of the solution 
to act throughout the pile. 

Cautions. — (i) In the case of oats or barley the wetting 
must be more thorough than in the case of wheat, so that 
the formalin or gas may penetrate beneath the husks of 
the grain. 

(2) Do not allow wet grain to remain in a pile long 
enough to get hot. A very slight degree of fermentation 
may greatly reduce the yield. 

For Potato-scab. — Soak the tubers before cutting one hour 
and a half in a solution of formalin at the rate of one 
pound of the liquid to thirty gallons of water ; or in a 
solution of corrosive sublimate, using one pound of the 
chemical to each fifty gallons of water. 

Note : The potato-scab fungus lives from year to year in 
the soil and upon old vines. Hence it is wise to try ta 
keep it off your lands, by treating all seed-tubers. (See 
Bull. 37, N. D. Experiment Station.) 



108 AGRICULTURE. 

FIGHTING THE CHINCH-BUG BY MEANS OF 
KEROSENE EMULSION. (Goff.) 

Experiments have established the fact that with thorough 
work according to the directions given below the kerosene 
emulsion will prevent the invasion of cornfields by chinch- 
bugs, even though the bugs appear in great numbers. 

How to Make and Apply the Kerosene Emulsion. — Slice half 
a pound of common bar soap, put it in a kettle with one gal- 
lon of soft water, and boil until dissolved ; put two gallons 
of kerosene in a churn or stone jar, and to it add the boiling- 
hot soap solution ; churn from twenty to thirty minutes, 
when the whole will appear creamy. If properly made, no 
oil will separate out when a few drops of the emulsion are 
placed on a piece of glass. To each gallon of the emulsion 
add eight gallons of water and stir. Apply with a sprink- 
ling-pot. 

Every farmer should learn to make this emulsion, as it is 
a most useful insecticide. It is especially valuable for kill- 
ing lice on cattle and hogs. Paris green will not kill chinch- 
bugs. 

The bugs will be very likely to enter cornfields border- 
ing grainfields, after the grain is cut. Before they have 
had time to do this plough a deep furrow along the side of 
the field they will enter, and throw into it stalks of green 
corn. When the bugs have accumulated on the corn, 
sprinkle with the emulsion. Put in fresh stalks and sprinkle 
whenever the bugs accumulate. If they break over the 
barrier, as they probably will, run a few furrows a few 
rows back in the field, and repeat. When they have at- 
tacked stalks of standing corn, destroy by sprinkling. 

If the remedy is tried, it should be used persistently. To 
kill one lot of bugs and then stop will do little or no good. 
When the bugs threaten to destroy as much as five or ten 
acres, it will pay for one or two men to devote their whole 
time to the warfare. Only a part of each day, however, 
will be needed. Some corn will be lost at best, but the most 
of the field should be saved. 



FORESTKY. 109 



IX. FORESTRY. 

FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 

By Dr. B. E. Feknow, Director of the New York State College of 
Forestry. 

There has been much talk about forestry in the U. S., but 
there has been little application of the teachings of that 
science. This is easily explained in so far as the lumber- 
men are concerned, who are in the business of making 
money by cutting the virgin woods, similar to the mining 
of ore, but it is less intelligible with the farmer who is pre- 
sumed to be in the business of making money by the pro- 
duction and harvesting of crops, which he grows on the 
soil of his farm. 

That his wood-lot could and should by him be also treated 
as a crop seems rarely to have entered his mind. Whether 
he starts out, as in the prairie portions of the State, by 
planting a grove, or whether he cuts his wood from the 
virgin growth which he left after clearing enough for field 
and meadow, in either case he should fully realize that he 
is dealing with a valuable crop, which requires and will 
pay for the attention and application of knowledge in its 
management, such as a true husbandman would give to it. 

The Wisconsin farmer, just as his neighbor in Minnesota, 
living in a State largely covered with timber of great value, 
has special reason to practise the principles of forestry in 
order to get the most out of this part of the property both 
for the present and the future. And those who are located 
in the prairie portions have no less need of maintaining a 
forest growth on some part of their farm as a matter of 
proper management of their resources. 

The first thing, as with every other crop, that will have to 
be decided is on what portions of the farm this wood-crop 
is best propagated. In deciding about the location of the 
wood-lot the farmer must keep in mind : 

I. That wood will grow on almost any soil, which is unfit 
for agricultural use ; that, although it grows best on the 



110 AGRICULTURE. 

best sites, it is to be mainly considered and used as a " stop- 
gap" to make useful those parts which would otherwise be 
waste. 

2. That a forest growth, besides furnishing useful material, 
is a condition of soil-cover which affects other conditions, 
namely, of climate and water-flow, and hence its location 
should be such as to secure the most favorable influence on 
these. 

3. That the wood-crop does not live on the soil, but on the 
air, enriching the soil in nutritive elements by its decaying 
foliage rather than exhausting it, and hence that no ma- 
nuring and no rotation of crops is necessary as in field 
crops; in other words, the location of the wood-crop can be 
made permanent. 

A wood growth should therefore be maintained on the 
farm : 

a. Wherever the ground is too wet or too dry, too thin 
or too rocky or too steep, for comfortable ploughing and for 
farm crops to do well, or for pasturage to last long, or, in 
general, where the ground is unfit for field and meadow. 

b. On the highest portions of the farm, the tops of hills 
and also in belts along the hillsides, so as to interrupt con- 
tinuous slopes, which might give rise to such a rush of 
surface-waters as to gully the ground and make it unfit for 
field crops or pasture ; the gentler slopes which are liable 
to washing should at least be kept in grass or terraced for 
crops to prevent the rush of surface-waters. 

c. Along watercourses, where narrower or wider belts of 
timber should be maintained to prevent undermining of 
banks and washing of soil into the streams if ploughed too 
close to the border ; the shade of a forest growth would 
also check rapid evaporation of smaller watercourses. 

d. Wherever the protection by a wind-break against cold 
or hot winds is desirable, for which purpose the timber belt 
is of more far-reaching effect than the wind-break of a single 
row of trees ; the reduced evaporation from the fields due 
to this protection has been known to increase the yield of 
field crops by as much as 25 per cent. 

?. On all unsightly places, which impair the general 



FORESTRY. Ill 

aspect of the farm — and there are few farms without these 
— a few trees, a small grove, will add to the thrifty appear- 
ance of the farm, make useful the otherwise waste spots, 
and serve as shelter to grazing cattle, etc. 

Altogether, the farmer should realize that husbandry of 
soil and water is the secret of future success, and that 
successful water management is best attained by the main- 
tenance of properly located and well-managed forest areas. 

There is much extravagant talk about the influence of 
forests on climate and on rainfall especially. We have but 
little definite knowledge on these subjects, but it takes no 
expert, only a little observation, to appreciate the effects of 
a wind-breaking timber belt on one's own feeling, and it 
takes but little reasoning to appreciate that the field crop 
in the shelter of the timber belt participates in this feeling. 
The dry winds are the great bane of field crops in the West, 
because they dissipate the moisture ; a timber belt breaks 
their force and reduces thereby their evaporating power. 

Just so it takes no great philosopher to see that when 
rain falls on naked ground it compacts that ground and by 
and by prevents itself from penetrating; the water is forced 
to drain off superficially and rapidly, instead of sinking into 
the ground and remaining there for the use of field crops. 
And that the washing and gullying of the soil is also a result 
of this rushing off of surface-waters, due to the clearing 
away of its plant-cover, requires no wise man to point out ; 
every farmer experiences it more or less every year. 

That any one farmer's neglect or the devastation of any 
small part of the forest growth should have an influence on 
the rainfall or climate of the whole country nobody should 
claim; but the conditions surrounding each particular farm, 
its local climate, soil, and water conditions, are changed, 
and finally the aggregate changes make themselves felt over 
the whole state. 

Now as to the management of the wood-lot a few hints 
may be acceptable. The farmer may not necessarily employ 
the finer methods of managing the wood-crop, but by the 
mere application of common sense and a little knowledge 
of tree-life he may do better than he does at present. 



112 AGRICULTURE. 

He should at least observe the following rules : 

1. Fire should be carefully kept out of the wood-lot, 
for it has in no way a beneficial effect. It kills not only the 
undergrowth, which is desirable because it helps to. shade 
the soil, and injures, if it does not kill, the young tree 
growth, which is to take the place of the older growth, but 
the worst effect is that it consumes the vegetable mould 
which has accumulated by the fall and decay of leaves, 
twigs, and other vegetation, and which forms the manure, 
the fertility, of the soil. Fire is to be used only when 
through bad management or otherwise a dense undesirable 
undergrowth has come in, which it is too expensive to re- 
move in other ways when the time for natural reproduction 
has come or planting is to be done. It must then be used 
with caution in early spring or late fall, before the brush is 
too dry, when the fire will smoulder rather than burn 
fiercely and can be kept within bounds. 

2. Cattle must be kept out where young forest growth is 
to be fostered. Sheep and goats especially are of no benefit 
to wood-crops, but horses and cattle may be allowed to 
browse through the wood-lot where the young growth has 
passed out of their reach. Pigs are a benefit by working 
over the ground and thereby burying seeds, especially 
acorns ; but after the seed is so brought under ground 
where a young crop is expected to be reared next year they 
must be kept out. Altogether, the cattle and farm animals 
should be kept where you want them, and not where you 
do not want them. Sometimes, however, the roaming of 
cattle may be beneficial by keeping down too dense im- 
penetrable underbrush in young sapling growth. 

It is better to so cut and manage the old timber that a 
desirable new growth will spring up than to cut clean and 
replant. Planting should be done only where there is no 
desirable natural tree giowth. Hence where there is a well- 
established wood-lot, the whole management of the crop 
consists in proper cutting. 

How this is best done cannot be described readily within 
the short space of this article, but every farmer who is 
interested in learning the principles of using the axe to 



FORESTRY. 



m 



advantage in reproducing a wood crop or how to establish 
a wood-lot can obtain from the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, free of charge, a pamphlet entitled " Forestry for 
Farmers," in which in plain language is discussed in detail 
how trees and forests grow, how to start a wood-crop, and 
how to manage the wood-lot. 

It does not exhaust the subject, but merely teaches the 
first steps, and the thinking farmer will find his way of step- 
ping farther. 



NUMBER OF TREES ON AN ACRE. (Egleston.) 

The number of trees needed to plant an acre of ground, 
at various distances apart, is as follows: 



2 f 


t. apart each 


way 


io,8go 


12 ft. 


apart each 


way. 


• 302 


3 ' 


' by 2 ft 


.... 


7,260 


15 " 






. 200 


3 ' 


' apart each 


way 


4>840 


18 " 






• 135 


4 ' 


• «« << 




2,722 


20 " 






. no 


5 ' 


. << «• 




1.742 


22 " 






. 90 


6 ' 


( <i (( 




1,210 


25 " 






. 70 


8 • 
o • 


( (1 (( 




680 

435 


30 " 






• 50 



Rows six feet apart, and trees one foot apart in the row, 
7260 trees per acre. 

Rows eight feet apart, and one foot apart in the row^ 
5445 trees per acre. 

Rows ten feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 4356 
trees per acre. 

One mile of wind-breaks or shelter-belt requires 528c 
trees, or cuttings for a single row one foot apart in the row- 



114 



AGRICULTURE. 



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AGRICULTURE. 



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FORESTRY. 



117 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OBSERVING ARBOR 
DAY, WITH DATES. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



States. 


Year of 
First Ob- 
servance. 


Time of Observance. 


Alabama 


1887 
1890-91 

1886 
1885 
1887 
1886 
1887 
1886 
1888 

1884 

1887 

'.III 

1888-89 
1887 
1889 
1886 
1885 
1876 
1802 
1886 
3887 
1872 
1887 
1886 
1884 
1890 
1S89 

1893 
1884 
1882 

1889 
1887 
1887 
Uncertain. 
1884 
1875 

1890 
1885 
1892 
1883 

1889 
1888 
1892 


22d of February. 

First Friday after ist of February. 




California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Florida 


Third Friday in April. 

In spring, at appointment of governor. 

January 8. 

First Friday in December. 


Georgia 


Idaho 


Last Monday in April. 

Date fixed by governor and superintend- 
ent of public instruction. 

Date fixed by supe'^intendent of public 
instruction. 
Do. 




Indiana . 


Iowa 




Option of governor, usually in April. 
Do. 


Kentucky 


Louisiana. 

Maine 

Maryland... . 


Option of parish boards. 
Option of governor. 
Option of ^.-overnor, in April. 
Last Saturday in April. 
Option of governor. 
Do. 


Massachusetts 




Mississippi 

Missouri 


Option of board of education. 

First Friday after first Tuesday in April, 

Third Tuesday of April. 

22d of April. 


Montana 

Nebraska 




Option of governor. 


New Hampshire... 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

IS e w York 


Do. 
Option of governor, in April. 
Second Friday in March. 
First Friday after May 1. 

6th of May, by proclamation of governor. 
In April, by proclamation of goveinor. 

Second Friday in April. 
Option of governor. 

Do. 
Variable. 

Option of governor. 

November, at designation of county sup- 
erintendents. 
22d of February. 
Option of governor. 


North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 


Oklahoma 

Oregon 


Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 


Texas 


Vermont 


Virginia. . 


West Virginia 


Fall and spring, at designation of super- 
intendent of schools. 
Option of governor. 
Do 


Wyoming 


Washington ... 


Do. 



118 



AGRICULTUKE. 



FOREST-FIRE LAWS IN THE UMTKD STATES. 

(Fernow.) 

(See p. io6 for penalties imposed.) 



State. 


Edition of 
Code. 


Title. 


Chapter. 


Section, 




C. C. 1886 






4226-8 

1580-4 

384 

1414 15, «7-i8 

1458, 1460-2 

1—2 


Arkansas! ■< 

California* 


S. & H.'s D. 

P.^C.^886.' .'.".. 
Mills, G. S. 

1891 

G. S. 1888. .. . 
Vol. XVIII 


10 
I 


48 


Colorado < 

Connecticut^ 

Delaware* 


36 

99 
93 


19 


Florida , 


Laws 1870 . 




3i4« 
1456-9 
6921 
18 




1882 




10 

38 

5 
3 


Idaho 


R. S. 1887 

R. S. 1895 

R. S. 1894 .. . 
McLean's, 1888 
C L 1889. 


9 
24 


Illinois 


Indiana 


200 T 

5185-92 

7276-8 

5-6 
817 
5 

1-2 


Kansas .... 




G. S. 1888 

1884. 




89 


Louisiana 








100 

163 

328 

95 
29 
47 


Mary land. « 
Massachusetts'^. . 


Sup. 1888 . . . 




Michigan^ J. 

Minnesota' 


Howell's A. S. 

1882. 

G S. 1878 


I 

> 


9402-4 
6 


Mississippi 






1091 
3613 


R. S. 1889 











» S. 1847: Burning off permitted when consent of neighbors is secured 
after i day's notice. 

2 Pol. Code, S. 3344-5 : Persons firing woods, etc., liable in treble dam- 
ages. Constable, etc., may order any inhabitants liable to poll-tax to 
assist in extinguishing fire. 

3 Must give notice, before burning off, to all residents within one mile, 
and can only be done between February 15 and March 31, unless otherwise 
ordered by county commissioner. 

* Prohibits building fire in woods without owner's permission, and with- 
out first clearing away combustibles, and extinguishing fire. 

6 Must give 1 day's notice, before burning off, to adjoining property 
owners, and then only betwen Feb. 20 and April i. 

* No law included in Revised Statutes. 

' Ch. 296, S. 1-6, G. S. 1883 : Duty of fire wardens to post warnings, 
extinguish fires, and investigate causes of fires. 

* Supervisors and highway commissioners to order assistance in putting 
out fires; fine $5-$5o for refusal to assist. 

* See act of April 18, 1895. 



tOREStRY. 119 

FOREST-FIRK l^XVi^—Cotitinued. 



State. 



Montana*<> .. .. 

Nebraska 

Nevada. . 

New Hampshire 

New Jerseyii 

New York 

North Cardinal^ 
North Dakota. . . 

Ohiois 

Oregoni* , 

Pennsylvania. ... 

Rhode Island.. . . 
South Carolinais 
South Dakota. . 

Tennessee^* 

Texas . . 

UtahiT 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia . . . 

Wisconsin 

Wyomingis 

Arizona 

New Mexico . . . , 

OklahomaJS 



Edition of 
Code. 



P. C. 1895. 
1895... .,.. 
G. S. 1885. 
P. S. 1891.. 

R. S. 1877. 

R S 

Vol. I. '188^ 

1895 

R. S. 1894. 
Sess. 1893., 

1894 

G. S. i886. 

1893 

Dak. Ter,. 
M.&V. C. 
P. C. 1889. 
C. L. 1888. 
894 . 



R. S. 1889. 
R. S. 1887. 
R. S. 1887. 
1884 

1893 



[884 



Title. 



Fire. 
14 



Crim. Stat. 



Chapter. 



c. c. 9-62 



P. C. 40 



279 
101 



213 
181 



25 
37 entire. 



Section. 



1071-2 

6713 

4794 
3-7 
I and sup- 
plements. 

52-4 

7314-15 

6334 

Page 45 

Act of June 

II, 1879-81 

6 

151-7 

2398 
2277-8 

669-70 
4576 
4Q34 
3701-2 

81-84 
4406 

920-2 

608-9 
23«3-i4 
2269-70 



10 Penalty for failing to extinguish camp-fire or malicious firing of woods, 
fine not exceeding $5000, or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both. 

11 Ch. 188, G. P. Laws 1888, provides detectives for violators of fire 
law. Ch. 119, Laws 1892, and Ch. 194, Laws 1894, provide for fire mar- 
shals and define their duties. 

12 Fine $10 for leaving unextinguished camp-fire. Two days' notice in 
writing before firing one's own woods. 

" S. 4750-1: Penalty for refusing to assist in extinguishing fires, fine $10. 

1* Requires governor to issue proclamation annually July i, warning 
people against forest fires. 

1' If turpentine farm, fine $500, or penitentiary i year. 

18 Owner may fire his own woods after two days' notice to neighbors. 

1' Ch. 27, Laws 1892: Duty of county sheriffs to extinguish fires. 

18 Permits firing grass and sage-bush March, April, and October, if kept 
within control. 

i» Camp-fires, and regulations for burning off prairies, etc., Ch. 37 (enacted 
1890) provides penalties for setting fires and failure to extinguish. 



120 AGRICULTURE. 

FOREST-FIRE IjPlX^^ ^—Contuiued. 
PENALTY PRESCRIBED BY STATE LAWS. 

Alnbatna. — Fine $io-$2oo; if turpentine forest, $ioo-$iooo, or hard 
labor for not more than 12 months. 

Arkansas.— Y\nQ $25-1300, or iaii 10-60 days. Liable for double 
damages. 

\ California. —Fine: not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year, or 
both. 

Colorado.~¥\ut $5o-$3oo. or jail 15 days to 3 months, or both. If on State 
lands, $5o-$5oo, or jail 20 days to 6 months. 

Connecticut. — Y\n& $2o-$2oo, or jail 2-6 months, or both. Fine $i-$5o, 
or jail not more than 30 days. 

Delaware. — Fine $25. 

Florida. — Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 60 days. 

Georgia.— Fine not more than $1000, or i year in chain-gang, or both. 

Idaho. — Misdemeanor. 

Illinois.— Fine $5-$ 100. 

Indiana.— Fine $5-$ioo, to which may be added imprisonment not more 
than 30 days. 

lo-uia.— Fine not exceeding $500, or jail not exceeding i year. 

Kansas.— Fine $5o-$5oo, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. 

Kentucky.— Fine $100, or in discretion of jury. 

Louisiana. — Fine $5-$500. 

Maine.— Fine not exceeding |ioo, or jail not exceeding 30 days, or both. 

3Iassachusetts .—Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 6 months. 

Michigan. — Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 1 year, or 
both. 

Minnesota.— Stale prison 6 months to 2 years. 

Mississi/>pi.— Fine $2o-$5co, or jail not more than 3 months, or both. 

Missouri — Fine not more than $500, or jail not more than 12 months. 

Montana.— Fine not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year. 

N^eiraska.— Fine $5-Sioo, and jail 1-6 months. 

N'evada.— Fine $2oo-Siooo, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. 

New Hampshire. — Fine $io-$2ooo, or imprisonment not more than 3 
years. 

New Jersey.— Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than i year, or 
both. 

New York.— Fine not exceeding $1000, or imprisonment not exceeding 
I year. 

North Carolina.— Fine $50. 

North Dakota.— W i\i\x\. a misdemeanor ; negligent, fine $io-$ioo. 

Ohio.— Fine not more than Sioo, or jail not more than 20 days, or both. 

Oregon.—Fine $io-$iooo, and in certain cases penitentiary not exceed, 
ing I year. 

Pennsylvania.— Fine not more than $300, or jail not more than i year* 
or both. 



FORESTRY. 131 

Rhode A/dWf/.— Imprisonment not exceeding 2 years. 

South Carolina.— V\n& $5-Sioo, or jail not more than 30 days. 

South Dakota.— Fine not more than $200, or jail not more than i year, 
or both. 

Tennessee. — Forfeit $100 to prosecutor and fine $5-850 (S. 2277, Code 
Sup. 1893). 

Texas. — Fine S50-300. 

Utah — Misdemeanor. 

Veriizo7it.—¥'\ne not more than S500, or penitentiary not more than 5 
years. 

Virginia. — Fine $5-8100, and jail 1-6 months. 

West Virginia.— Fine $io-$iooo, or jail not more than 12 months. 

Wisconsin.— Fine not more than $500, or jail not more than i year. 

Wyoviing. — Fine not more than $500, or jail 30 days to 6 months. 

Arizona. — Misdemeanor. If on State or U. S. lands, fine not more than 
$1000, or jail not more than i year, or both. 

New Mexico. — Fine $6o-$5oo. 

Oklahoma.— Fine $io-$5oo, or jail not more than i year, or both. 



12^ AGRICULTURE, 



X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



It is a matter of common experience among farmers that the 
soil is impoverished by continuous cropping, and the yields 
obtained therefore gradually decreased. The decrease in 
yields can only be prevented by applications of farmyard 
manure or commercial fertilizers; ploughing and thorough 
cultivation of the soil bring the land in a better mechanical 
condition and increase the amount of available plant food 
present in the soil, but these operations are not sufficient 
to maintain the fertility of the land so that it will yield 
equally well from year to year under otherwise favorable 
conditions. Every crop harvested contains certain quan- 
tities of fertilizing ingredients, and taking away these 
amounts in general leaves the soil in a poorer condition for 
the production of crops than it was before. 

The fertilizing ingredients of which the soil is thus liable 
to be robbed are potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and 
sometimes lime. They are not present as such in the soil, 
or in the fertilizers applied to the soil, but in chemical com- 
binations with a large variety of compounds. The soil will 
contain nearly all the different elements which chemists 
have so far succeeded in isolating, but it is mainly the 
three elements, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, 
which are apt to be decreased in the soil below the amounts 
required for the nutrition of crops, or at least of maxi- 
mum crops. In rational fertilization the effort therefore 
always is to return to the soil such quantities of fertilizing 
ingredients, in the shape of farmyard manure or com- 
mercial fertilizers, as willrestore the loss sustained by the 
withdrawal of the crops harvested. Other mineral ingre- 
dients contained in the crops need not generally be re- 
turned to the soil, since they are nearly everywhere pres- 
ent in abundance. 



MANURES AND FEKTILIZEKS. 



123 



It is the grand work done for the farmer by agricultural 
chemistry during the past half century which has ex- 
plained the causes of the decreased fertility of land due 
to continuous cropping, and has given the remedies for 
maintaining the fertility. The latter are as follows: 

First, by selling only such products from the farm as will 
deprive the soil of the smallest quantities of fertilizing in- 
gredients, i.e., manufactured products, like milk, cream, 
butter, meat, eggs, rather than grain crops, hay, etc. The 
tables given on pp. 126-129 show the amounts of fertilizing 
ingredients removed in farm products of various kinds and 
deserve a close study by all farmers. 

Secondly, by carefully saving the manure produced by 
stock — both liquid and solid (the former by the use of ab- 
sorbents, peat, land plaster, kainit, superphosphate, shav- 
ings, etc., or by building special cisterns for storing it; the 
latter by placing it under shelter, guarding against leakage) 
— and returning it to the land; as the products sold off the land 
also contain certain quantities of fertilizing constituents, 
the loss must be repaired by purchase of concentrated food 
stuffs, at least three fourths of whose valuable ash ingredi- 
ents will go into the manure and thus be saved for crops. 

Thirdly, by following a rational system of rotation of 
crops, and by frequent culture of leguminous crops, — 
clovers, peas, beans, etc., — since these are able to so fix 
the free nitrogen of the air as to render it of value to ani- 
mals and plants. 

APPROXIMATE LOSSES OF FERTILIZING MATE- 
RIALS IN DIFFERENT SYSTE31S OF FARMING. 

(Snyder.) 



System of Farming. 



All grain-farming . . 

Mixed grain- and general farming. . . 
Mixed potato- and general farming.. 

Stock-farming 

Dairy-farming . . . . 



Nitrogen. ^^XPi^""" Potash. 



lbs. 
5600 
2600 

23CK> 

900 

Sou 



lbs. 
2500 
1000 
1000 
50* 
75* 



lbs. 
4200 
1000 
2400 
60 
85 



*Gain. 



lU 



AGRICULTURE. 



The figures given show the approximate losses on & 
i6o-acre farm under the different systems of farming. 
With stock- and dairy-farming, as well as partly in mixed 
grain- and general farming, the loss of nitrogen may be 
avoided by growing clover. In stock- and dairy-farming, 
therefore, no loss of fertility will occur under these con- 
ditions when all the skim-milk is fed on the farm and a 
part of the grain is exchanged for more concentrated milled 
products, but there will on the contrary be a constant 
gain of fertility to the soil. (See Bull. 41, Minn. Exp. 
Station.) 

AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 

(King.) 





= •3; 

1" 


« c « 
> 




1 


a 


.2 

<u 
c 

1 




1^ 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Sandy soils... 


93.21 


2.61 


. 121 


.051 


.085 


.048 


.087 


Clayey soils . . 


68.21 


6.53 


.319 


.128 


.617 


.456 


.141 


Humus soils. 


35-89 


13 94 


.639 


.109 


3.786 


.886 


.150 


Loess soils.... 


68.85 


1. 21 


.435 


.165 


5.820 


3.692 


.200 


Humid soils... 


84.03 


3-64 


.216 


.091 


.108 


.225 


•'13 


Arid soils 


70-57 


4-95 


.729 


.264 


1.362 


1. 411 


.117 



MAXURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



125 



MANURIAIi VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



Chart shoiving Pounds of Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding 

Stuffs in one Ton, and the Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs^ 

according to the Valuation given. 



"Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid 



Potash 



Price per pound 12 cts. 4>^ cts. 4>^ cts. 

Black Bar rejjresents Manurial Valueper Ton, 




O.P. I. 

XinseeU meal c^ 

N.P. t 

Cotton seed meal ^ 



Cotton seed huUs r^TT 
Gluten mcc.l l,^^. 
Malt sprouts r 
Brewers' grains 



16.77 



100 120 140 160 180 200 Ibl, 



126 



AGRICULTURE. 



FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING 
STUFFS AND FAR 31 PRODUCTS. 

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Material. 



Green Fodders. 

Pasture grass 

Green fodder corn 

Sorghum fodder 

Rye fodder 

Oat fodder 

Timothy grass 

Red clover. 

White clover 

Alsike clover 

Scarlet clover .... 

Alfalfa (lucern) 

Cowpea 

Soja bean 

Prickly comfrey 

Corn silage 



Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders. 

Fodder corn (with ears) 

Corn stover (without ears) 

Hungarian grass 

Common millet 

Hay of mixed grasses 

Red top • .. 

Timothy 

Red clover. 

Mammoth red clover , 

White clover 

Scarlet clover , 

Alsike clover 

Alfalfa 

Barley straw 

" chaff 

Wheat straw 

chaff , 

Rye straw 

Oat " 

Buckwheat hulls 



Roots, Bulbs, Tubers, etc. 

Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes 

led beets. 

Yellow fodder beets 

Sugar beets 

Mangel-wurzels 

'Turnips 

Rutabagas 

Carrots 



per ct. 
63.1 
78.6 
82.2 
62.1 
83-4 
66.9 



»-'.5 
7.S-3 
78.8 
73-2 
84.4 
78.0 



7-S5 
9.12 
7.69 
9-75 
1.1.99 
7.71 
7.52 

"•33 
II. 41 



18.30 
9.94 
6.55 
11.44 
1308 
12.56 
8.05 
7.61 
9.09 
11.90 



79.24 
71.26 
87-73 
90 60 
86.95 
87 29 
89 -49 
89 T3 
89.79 



per ct. 


3.27 


4 


84 


I 


31 


2 


15 


I 


47 


2 


25 


1 


47 


2 


45 



4.91 

3-74 
6.18 

6.34 
4-59 
4 93 
6-93 
8.72 



7.70 
ti .11 
7 07 
5 30 

■3.8i' 
7.18 
325 
4.76 



:i3 

■95 
:.04 



per ct. 

91 
41 
23 
33 
49 
48 
53 
50 
44 
43 
72 
27 
29 
42 
28 



1.76 
1.04 
1.20 
1.28 
1. 41 
I -15 
1.26 
2.07 
2 23 

2.75 
2.05 
2.34 
2.19 
I-3I 
1 .01 



a:2 



per ct. 
•23 
•15 
.09 
•15 
•13 
.26 

•13 
.20 
. II 
•13 
•13 

-iO 

•15 



09 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



137 



FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING 
STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS.— (0«//««e^^.) 



Material. 



Grains and Other Seeds. 

Corn 

Sorghum seed 

Barley.. 

Oais 

Wheat, spring 

•' winter 

Rye 

Millet, common 

Japanese millet 

Rice 

Buckwheat 

Soja beans 

Other Concentrated Feeds 

Corn meal 

Corn and cob meal 

Ground oats 

" barley 

Wheat flour 

Pea raeal 

Corn cobs 

Hominy feed 

Gluten meal 

Starch feed (glucose refuse) 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, dry . 

' " wet 

Rye bran 

" middlings 

Wheat bran 

" middlings 

Rice bran 

" polish 

Buckwheat middlings 

Cotton-seed meal 

hulls 

Linseed meal (old process). . 
" " (new process) . 

Apples, fruit 

Apple pomace 

Dairy Products^ etc. 

Whole milk 

Skim-milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Butter 

Cheese 

Live cattle 

Sheep 

Swine 







1 







J2 
< 


Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 


i-1 


per ct. 


per ct. 


per ct. pe 


ret. 


10.88 


1-53 


1.82 


70 


14.00 




1.48 


81 


14-30 


2.48 


1. 51 


79 


18.17 


2.98 


2.06 


82 


14-35 


1-57 


2.36 


70 


14-75 




2.36 


89 


14.90 




1.76 


82 


12.68 




2.04 


85 


13.68 





1-73 


6q 


12.60 


.82 


1.08 


18 


14.10 




1.44 


44 


18.33 


4-99 


5-30 I 


87 


12.95 


1. 41 


1.58 


6:; 


8.96 




1. 41 


57 


II. 17 


3-37 


1.86 


77 


13-43 


2.06 


I-.S5 


66 


9-83 


1.22 


2.21 


57 


8.8s 


2.68 


3.08 


82 


12.09 


.82 


•50 


06 


8.93 


2.21 


1.63 


98 


8.59 


-73 


5-03 


33 


8.10 




2.62 


29 


18.38 


12.48 


3-55 I 


43 


9.14 


3.92 


3.62 I 


03 


75- 01 




.89 


31 


12.50 


4.60 


2.32 2 


28 


12.54 


352 


1.84 I 


26 


11.74 


6.25 


2.67 2 


89 


9.18 


2.30 


2.63 


95 


10 . 20 


12.94 


.71 


29 


10.30 


9.00 


1.97 2 


67 


14.70 


1.40 


1.^8 


68 


7.81 


6.95 


6.79 2 


88 


10.17 


2.40 


.69 


25 


8.88 


6.08 


5-43 


.66 


7-77 


5-37 


5-78 I 


83 


85-30 


•39 


•13 


01 


80.50 


.27 


-23 


.02 


87.00 


•75 


•53 


19 


90.25 


.80 




56 


.20 


74 05 


-50 




40 


-15 


90.50 


.70 




48 


.17 


92.97 


.60 




15 


14 


79.10 


-15 




12 


04 


33 25 


2.10 


3 


93 


.60 


50 2 


4 40 


2 


48 


.70 


44-8 


2.90 


I 


95 I 


•13 


42 


1.80 


I 


76 , 


•73 



per ct. 

.40 
.42 
48 
62 

39 
6i 
54 
36 
38 
09 



.40 

• 47 

-59 

•34 

-54 

.99 

.60 

•49 

•05 

•15 

1.63 

.09 

•05 

1.40 

.81 

1. 61 

•63 

■24 

■71 

•34 

.87 

1 .02 

1-37 

I '39 

•19 

•13 



128 



AGRICULTURE. 



AMOUNT OF SOILi INGREDIENTS TV^ITHDRAWN 
BY VARIOUS CROPS, IN LBS. PER ACRE. 

(HiLGARD.) 



Crops. 



Grapes, i,ooo lbs 

Crop of 10,000 lbs 

Seeds, 646 lbs 

Flesh, 9,154 lbs 

Wood, 2,010 lbs 

Prunes, 1,000 lbs.. 

Crop of 30,000 lbs 

Pits, 1,635 lbs. 

Flesh, 28,365 lbs 

Apricots, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 30,000 lbs 

Pits, 1,740 lbs 

Flesh, 28,260 lbs 

Oranges, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 20,000 lbs 

Seeds, 240 lbs 

Flesh and rind, 19,760 lbs 

Roots, percentage 

Stems, " 

Leaves " 

Olives, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 2,200 lbs 

Pits, 429 lbs 

Flesh, 1,771 lbs... 

Leaves, 4,400 lbs 

Wood, 11,000 lbs 

Wheat, 1,000 lbs. (whole plant).. 

Crop of 4.800 lbs. (hay) 

Grain, 20 bushels . 

Straw, 3,600 lbs 

Alfalfa, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of i2,ooo lbs 

Sugar beets (fresh), 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 72,000 lbs 

Roots, 40,000 lbs 

Tops, 32,000 lbs 

Ramie, i. 000 lbs <, 

Crop of 14.25 tons 

Leaves, 4.25 tons 

Stalk (without bark), 7.25 tons. 
Bark (cuticle and fibre), 2.75 

tons 

Cotton, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 3,200 lbs 

Leaves, 400 lbs 

Stems, 1,200 lbs 

Seeds, 800 lbs 

Burs, 400 lbs 

Lint, 400 lbs 



53-42 

303 

120.90 

8.60 

112.30 

5-i6 

154.80 

12.25 

142.55 

432 

86.40 

6.90 

79-50 
100. 12 
100.00 

99.91 

94-63 
208.18 
193-25 

14-56 
190. 16 
123.18 

51.26 
246.04 

24.00 
222.04 

65.00 
780.00 

18.73 
1349-72 
287.00 
1062.72 

75-19 

2143-57 

641-35 

410.48 

91-74 
54-26 
173.60 
48.69 
38.44 
29-37 
52.01 
5.09 



5-00 
50.00 

1.48 
47-44 
15.69 

2.66 
79.70 

2.06 
77-64 

2.83 
84.98 

1.36 
83.62 



1. 00 
10.00 



42.28 
2 74 

39-54 
1543 
11.69 
16.51 

8.55 
18 81 

6.77 
12.04 
58.05 
24.46 

9-15 
43.92 
7.85 
36.07 
13 -49 

[61 .88 274.32 
5-381 3-11 
387.44 224.08 
152.00 i6.oo 
235.44 208 08 
8.84! 23 08 

251.98 657.82 
68.13 566.91 

155.99 71-77 



21.60 

-13 

3-9" 

•52 

3-40 

.18 

5-45 

-83 

465 

•99 

19.72 

1.32 

18.40 

49-89 

55 13 

56.38 

2.32 

5.10 

4- 

1.09 
88.53 
66.63 

2.30 

11.04 

•72 



10.32 
22.86 



27.86 
11.00 
35.26 
7-99 
9.17 
8.99 
7.42 
1.69 



19 
13 . 76 
44.04 
15.03 
10.58 
3-07 
14.16 



1.52 

15.20 
5-75 
8.93 
8.74 
•53 

15-95 
2.80 

13.15 
•71 

21.38 
5-36 

16.02 

-53 
10.60 
1.61 
8 99 
13-47 
17.09 
3-27 
1. 18 

2.59 
2.40 

•19 
20.08 
14-87 

4-13 
19.80 
11.90 

7 90 

6 43 
77.16 

1.61 
ti6.i6 
36.00 
80.16 

6 46 
155-70 
77.13 
67.7 

10.86 
7-03 

22.54 
4 

4.49 

9-74 

3-57 

•52 



.61 



1.48 
44.40 
10.30 
34.10 

2.29 
68.70 
15.00 
53-70 

1.83 
36.60 



7.89 

.02 

7.87 

1-59 

19.08 

.861 

61.63 

12.00 



49 68 


1.12 


51-85 


41.56 


2.50 


7-79 


2-.S8 


8.27 


2.75 


2.54 


.48 


2.14 


-36 



12.96 

55-52 
2.38 
73-40 
60.40 
13.00 
12.97 
369.70 
206 10 
105.85 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



129 



ODh 



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20 tons. 
40 bushels. 
40 bushels. 
30 bushels. 
30 Ions. 


■ <D 

: 


60 bushels 
Lo 700 bushels 
t6 tons 
to 30 bushels 
Lo 8 tons 
LO 200 bushels 
to 30 bushels 
Lo 600 bushels 


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130 AGRICULTURE. 

MINI31UM AMOUNT OF FARMYARD MANURE 

required to replace the Ingredients abstracted from 
the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops. (McConnell.) 



Wheat 5 tons. 

Barley 5 

Oats 5 

Meadow hay 8 

Red clover 12 

Beans 10 



Turnips 15, tons. 

Swedes 10 

Mangolds 20 

Potatoes 10 

Cabbage 25 

Carrots 10 



A3IOUNT AND QUALITY OF MANURE PRODUCED 
BY STOCK. 

The various classes of farm animals will produce about 
the following quantities of solid and liquid manure during 
a year, viz.: 

Solid Manure. Liquid Manure. 

Horse 12,000 lbs. 3,000 lbs. 

Cow 20,000 " 8,000 " 

Sheep 760 " 380 " 

Pig 1,800 " 1,200 " 

Since a considerable portion of the manure is lost while 
the animal is working or is out-doors, the quantities secured 
in the manure-pile will not come up to these figures. 

The quantities of urine voided by farm animals during 
twenty-four hours are on the average as follows, accord- 
ing to Wilckens : cows, 15-20 lbs.; horses, 20-27 lbs.; 
sheep, 2 lbs.; swine, 7-9 lbs. The capacity for liquid 
manure-tanks or cisterns intended to hold the fluid excre- 
ments of a herd of a certain size may readily be calculated 
on a basis of these figures (see tables on p. 154). 6000 lbs. 
(about 720 gallons) of urine per 1000 lbs. live weight of 
cattle, is a liberal estimate. 

The quality of the manure produced will depend on the 
character of the feeding and the kind of stock kept. Rich 
feeding produces a rich manure, since, as shown in the 
table given below, only a relatively small portion of the 
valuable fertilizing ingredients of the food is retained in 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



131 



the bodies of the animals, or is taken away in the products 
sold. Rich feeding, therefore, has a beneficial influence in 
two directions, larger yields of products being obtained, 
and a better quality of manure being produced. 



COMPOSITION, AMOUNT, AND VALiUE OF MANURE 

Produced by Different Kinds of Farm Animals. 

(Results of experiments conducted at Cornell University Experiment 
Station.) 





Analysis and Value per Ton of 
Manure. 


Amount and Value per 

1000 lbs. Live Weight 

per Day. 










j5 




•0 . 




V *. 








0^^ 


D, 


rt ao 
> H 


1-5 


.a. 


m 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 






Cents. 




Sheep. . . 


59-52 


-77 


9-39 


-59 


S3^.30 


34-1 


7.2 


$2609 


Calves.. 


77-73 


-50 


-17 


•53 


2.18 


67.8 


6.7 


24-45 


Pigs ... 


74-13 


.84 


-39 


-32 


3-29 


836 


16.7 


60.88 


Cows . . . 


75-25 


-43 


.29 


•44 


2.02 


74.1 


8.0 


29-27 


Horses . 


48.69 


.49 


.26 


.48 


2.21 


48.8 


7.6 


27.74 



QUANTITIES OF NITROGEN AND ASH CONSTITU- 

ents Voided by Animals or Obtained in Animal 
Products. (Lawes and Gilbert.) 



Percentage of Nitrogen. 



Obtain- 
ed as 
Animal 
Prod- 
uct. 



Voided 
as Solid 
Excre- 
ment. 



Voided 

as 
Liquid 
Excre- 
ment. 



In Total 
Excre- 
ment. 



Percentage of Ash 
Constituents. 



Obtained 
as Live 
Weight 
or Milk. 



Voided 
as Excre- 
ment or 
Perspira- 
tion. 



Horse at rest ... 
Horse at work... 
Fattening oxen . 
I'^ittening sheep, 
i'iittening pigs. 
Milking cows 



None. 

None. 

3-9 

4-3 

14.7 

24^5 



43 -o 
29.4 
22.6 
16.7 
22.0 
18. 1 



57-0 
70.6 
73-5 
79.0 
63-3 
57^4 



100. o 
100. o 
96.1 
95^7 
85-3 
75-5 



None. 

None. 
23 
3-8 
4.0 
10.3 



100. o 

ICO.Q 

97 7 
96.2 
96.0 
89.7 



* Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, pnosphoric acid at 6 cents, ana potasft 
at 4i cents per pound (see page 136). 



132 



AGRICULTURE. 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL 
FERTILIZING MATERIALS. (Real.) 





3 

1 


1 
1 


1 



a- 


Phosphoric Acid. 




Name. 


2 
3 



•c 
<u 

> 





6 
S 


Alcjae {Lytighia tnaj'usczila). 


16.26 
5-88 


4-25 
11-33 


-79 








2.06 






3^43! .'■■'. 




36.08I 


Ashes, anthracite coal 

" bitutninous " 






.10 
.40 
1.20 
1.27 
5.25 
1-31 






.10 

.40 

1. 14 

1-51 
1.70 
3-8o 
35^89 
28.28 
17.00 
23.25 

17.60 
20. 10 
29.90 




" lime-kiln 


15-45 
30.22 
12.50 
40.09 
7.00 
4.60 


8.20 


48.50 
28.08 








34.00 
44.89 


Bat guano 

Bone-ash . . . 


2-37 




















15.40 


IZ 






7-50 


4-05 

2.60 
6.20 
1.70 






" " dissolved 


I ^ e^ 




" " free from fat 










" " from glue factory 
Carnallite 






13.60 








Caribbean guano 

Castor pomace 


7-31 
9-50 
7.80 
7-7S 

24.27 

12.50 

12.75 

81.19 

22.28 

10.17 

3.20 

87 -75 

22.70 

4.82 

7.27 

I -50 

I-50 

1.50 

1.50 

12.09 

13-32 

2.00 
7.60 
1.40 
8.54 








26.77 
1-75 
8.35 
2.88 
3.10 

13-35 

1. 91 

8.25 

.07 


39 95 


6.79 
\% 

10.52 
7-25 

•35 


1. 10 

22.75 

1.77 

1.50 






1-25 


6.50 


9.60 


Cotton-seed meal, decort — 
" *' '' undecort 


Cuba guano 










.32 


•55 


2.60 




'Ec\-gr?i?,%{zoster,i marina).. 
Gas lime 


43-66 








13-25 
.20 








1.83 
"'"!o6 


Kainit ...... 


13-54 
.24 






1-15 




2 82 


Krugite. 

Lobster shells 

Marls, Kentucky 

•' Maryland and Virginia 
" New Jersey green sand 
" North Carolina .. 

Meat scrap 

Mona Island guano 

Muck 


4-50 

10.44 

.76 

1. 10 

.40 

15-70 

12.12 


8.42 
•1-3 

.2-1.5 






3-52 
.2 

.0-2 
.1-4 
0-.4 

21 .'88 
.10 
.10 


12.45 
22.24 
3-34 














1-9 

5-45 






•15 

■35 

51.48 




7-55 


37-49 








-90 








Navassa phosphate 






34-27 


37.45 




Oleomargarine refuse 








.88 













MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



133 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL 
FERTILIZING MATERIALS.— C^«/'z>/?^^a'. 





6 
1 


£ 


1 


Phosphoric Acid. 




Name. 


cJ 

3 


1 

> 




i 


Oyster-shell lime* 


15.00 

61.50 

14.8. 

2.25 


■■;85 
7-35 


•05 
.18 

2.65 


'.'.'..'.'. 




.18 

.08 

15.30 

24 50 


55 00 


Peat 


Peruvian guano 

Phosphates, Florida 

Plaster, purct" . 


3.20 


4.10 


28.50 
20.93 

'6^06 

.;si 











Seaweed 


81.90 

81.50 

88.49 

5-54 


.29 

•73 
•05 


.40 
.92 

I •so 

•05 

1.83 







.08 
•30 
.18 
.10 


" mixed . . - 






Sewage sludge, precipitated 
Soot . ... 












11.60 

27 m 


15.20 

28.03 

1. 61 




" " " ground.... 

Spent tan-bark ashes 

Sumac waste 


3:^: 

63.06 
1.00 

4-75 
2-54 
7-25 

10.00 
1.45 
6.18 

10.00 






41.87 

33-46 

1.14 


1. 19 
20.50 

6.70 


2.04 
3-25 




' 






Sulfate of ammonia 








Sulfate of potash and mag- 


25-50 
33 40 
16.65 








2-57 
"48.66 


Sulfate of potash, high grade 

Sylvanite 

Tankage 

Thomas slag 


•30 
.00 


S-io 
3 06 


li'.So 

23-49 

.65 

.70 


3-71 

2-35 


5.02 
8.20 
3 92 

tl.20 

•43 
.10 
■49 
.56 
•35 
1.50 

•25 

.20 

1.00 

•30 

.60 

% 


" stems . ... 


4.20 




'Wool waste 


15.80 

68.87 
60.00 


6.50 

.49 
.29 

•58 

l.IO 

.44 

1-55 

1. 00 

.60 

3.20 

.80 

•55 

1-95 

•50 

.60 

•43 






•35 

•32 
•17 


■ 


Composition of Farm 

Manures. 

Barnyard manure, average.. 

Cattle excrement, solid, fresh 

Cattle urine fresh 




















Hen manure fresh 






.85 
•'7 












Horse urine fresh. ... 










Human excrement solid 


77.20 

95 qo 
10.00 
50.00 






1.09 
•17 
1.90 
1.40 
•31 
.01 
•30 
.41 
.07 












Pigeon manure, dry 

Poudrette, night soil 

Sheep excrement. solid,fresh 




... . 


2.10 

.80 








Stable manure mixed 


73-27 








Swine excrement, solid, fresh 
Swine urine, fresh 























* 18.5 per cent carbonate. 

+ Nova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent 
carbonate of lime; Onondaga and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and 
18-28 per cent carbonate of lime, 

^ Sometimes as high as 5 per cent. 



134 AGRICULTURE. 

EXHAUSTION OF FERTILIZERS. (Scotch Authority.) 
ON CULTIVATED CLAY LOAM. 



Kind of Fertilize 


r. 


Xi — 1 


Per Cent remaining in the 

Soil Unexhausted at 

End of Each of First 

Six Years. 




I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


Lime 


12 

s 

5 

4 

3 
5 

5 


8o 
6o 
50 

20 

30 
40 
60 


65 
30 
30 

10 

20 

30 
30 


55 
20 
20 

5 

20 
20 


45 
10 
10 

10 
10 


35 


25 




Phosphatic g^uanos 




Dissolved bones and plain 

phates 

High - grade ammoniated 


superphos- 
fertilizers, 


•• 






Stable m;^nnr<* 









ON CULTIVATED LIGHT OR MEDIUM SOILS. 



Lime 

Bone meal 

Phosphatic guanos , . 

Dissolved bones and plain superphos 

phaie 

High-grade ammoniates, guanos 

Cotion-seed meal 

Stable manure 




4 


75 
60 


60 
30 


4 


50 


20 


3 


20 


10 


3 


30 


20 


4 
4 


40 

60 


30 
30 



ON CULTIVATED PASTURE LAND. 



Lime 

Bone meal 

Phosphatic guanos 

Dissolved bone, etc 

High-grade ammoniated guanos 

Cotton-seed meal 

Stable manure 



80 


70 


60 


60 


50 


40 


50 


40 


30 


30 


20 


10 


30 


20 


10 


40 


30 


20 


bo 


50 


40 



Sulfate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, sulfate, nitrate, 
and muriate of potash are generally held to be entirely 
exhausted by the crops grown the season of their applica- 
tion. 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



135 



EQUIVALENT QUANTITIES OP FERTllilZING 
MATERIALS. (Wheeler and Hartwell.) 



For 



loo lbs. nitrate of 
soda 

TOO lbs. sulfate 
of ammonia 

loo lbs dried 
blood 

loo lbs. cotton- 
seed meal 

loolbs. diss, phos- 
phate rock 

loolbs. diss, bone 
black 

loo lbs. double 
superphosphate 

r 



loo lbs. 
age 



tank- 



loo lbs. dry 
ground fish 



loo lbs. fine- 
ground bone 



May be Substituted any One of these Materials. 



76 lbs. sulfate of 

ammonia 
132 lbs. nitrate of 

soda 
71 lbs. nitrate of 

soda 
43 lbs. nitrate of 

soda 
76 lbs. diss, bone 

black 
131 lbs. diss, phos 

phate rock 
308 lbs. diss, phos- 
phate rock 



141 lbs. dried 235 lbs. cotton- 
blood seed meal. 

186 lbs. dried 311 lbs. cotton- 
blood seed meal 

54 lbs. sulfate of 167 lbs. cotton- 
ammonia seed meal 

32 lbs. sulfate of 60 lbs. dried 
ammonia blood 

33 lbs. double su- 
perphosphate 

43 lbs. double su- 
perphosphate 

235 lbs. double 
superphosphate 
39 lbs. nitrate of soda and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 

29 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 38 lbs. phosphate 
rock. 

55 lbs. dried blood and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 
91 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 
80 lbs. dry ground fish and 14 lbs. phosphate rock. 
33 lbs. nitrate of soda and 4.5 lbs. fine-ground bone. 
48 lbs. nitrate of soda and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 
37 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate 

rock. 
68 lbs. dried blood and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 
113 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 31 lbs, diss, phosphate 

rock. 
80 lbs. tankage and 17 lbs. nitrate of soda. 
36 lbs. fine ground bone and 44 lbs. nitrate of soda. 
13 lbs. nitrate of soda and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 
10 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate 

rock. 
18 lbs. dried blood and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 

30 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate 
rock. 

33 lbs. tankage and 72 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 

27 lbs. dry ground fish and 76 lbs. diss, phosphate rock 



136 AGRICULTUHi:. 

VALUATION OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 

The valuation of fertilizing ingredients shown below (see 
P- 137) is the one agreed upon by a number of Eastern 
experiment and fertilizer control stations after a careful 
study of the retail prices of crude products of fertilizers 
during the six months prior to March i, 1896. It expresses 
the commercial value of the fertilizers, and not their agri- 
cultural value, which will vary according to the require- 
ments of the land and the character of the crops grown. 
Fertilizers are sold in States having fertilizer control, on 
the basis of a guarantee of a minimum content of potash, 
phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, singly or combined, and it 
is the office of the fertilizer control stations to watch that 
goods offered for sale in their respective states are up to 
the guarantee. Farmers living in states where fertilizer 
laws are enacted (Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Dela- 
ware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louis- 
iana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missis- 
sippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South 
Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wis- 
consin) should not buy fertilizers except on guarantee, and 
should examine the fertilizer bulletins published by their 
respective stations to ascertain that the goods put on the 
market are not below the guarantee, and that the valuation 
price is not below the selling price of the article. Where 
a reasonable suspicion of fraud exists, apply to the direc- 
tor of the experiment station for information concerning 
the goods offered for sale or the firm placing them on the 
market. 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 137 



TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS 
IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS, 1899. 

Adopted by Eastern Experiment Stations for estimating the value of 
mixed commercial fertilizers. 

Cents 
Nitrogen — per lb. 

in ammonia salts 15 

in nitrates 12^ 

Organic nitrogen — 

in dry and fine-ground fish, meat, blood, and in high- 
grade mixed fertilizers 14 

in cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, and castor pomace 12 

in fine-ground bone and tankage 14 

in coarse bone and tankage 10 

Phosphoric acid — 

soluble in water 4^ 

soluble in ammonium-citrate solution 4 

in dry fine-ground fish, bone, and tankage 4 

in coarse bone and tankage 2 

in cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace, and 

wood ashes 4 

insoluble (in ammonium-citrate solution), in mixed 

fertilizers 2 

Potash as high-grade sulfate, and in mixtures free 

from muriate 5 

as muriate 4^ 

The manurial constituents contained in feeding stuffs are 
valued as follows : 

Organic nitrogen 12 

Phosphoric acid 4 

potash 4^ 



138 



AGRICULTURE. 



CONVERSION TABLE FOR CAIiCULATING FER- 
TILIZING INGREDIENTS. 



Amount of 



Nitrogen 

Ammonia 

Nitrate of soda 

Sulfate of ammonia 

Potash (anhydrous) 

Sulfate of potash 

Muriate of potash 

Phosphoric acid (anhydrous) 

Mono-calcium phosphate ... 

Di-calcium phosphate 

Tri-calcium phosphate 

Lime (calcium oxid) 

Chlorin!...! 



Gives Corresponding Amount 
of 



Ammonia. 
Nitrate of soda. 

Nitrogen. 

Sulfate of ammonia. 
Chlorid of ammonia. 
Nitric acid. 
Nitrate of soda. 

Nitrogen. 
Ammonia. 
Nitrogen. 
Ammonia. 

Sulfate of potash. 
Muriate of potash. 
Potash. 



Tri-calcium phosphate. 
Di-calcium phosphate. 
Mono-calcium phosphate. 

Tri-calcium phosphate. 

Phosphoric acid. 

Tri-calcium phosphate. 
Carbonate of lime. 
Sodium chlorid. 



AGRICULTUKAL ENGlNEEUING. 139 



XL AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 

REASONS FOR TILE-DRAINING LAND. 

(Chamberlain.*) 

Land should be drained, because: 

1. Tile drainag'? makes all tillage and harvesting operations 
easier and more rapid, physically and mechanically. 

2. Drainage removes both the excess surface-water, and the 
surplus water in the soil and the subsoil. 

3. Drainage prevents loss of fertility by surface wash. 

4. Drainage will add fertility to the soil with each rainfall. 

5. Drainage helps to warm the soil as well as to dry it, giv- 
ing best conditions for plant growth. 

6. Drainage lengthens the season of tillage, crop, growth^ 
and harvest. 

7. Drainage increases the extent of root pasturage. 

8. Drainage helps to disintegrate the soil and make pulveri- 
zation possible. 

9. Drainage greatly diminishes the effect of frost in heaving 
out wheat, clover, etc., in winter and spring. 

10. Drainage on clayey soils helps the crops to resist drought 
better. 

11. Drainage often, though not always, diminishes the sud- 
denness and violence of floods. 

12. Drainage, both open and with tiles, improves the health 
of a region. 

•Tile Drainage, by W. I. Chamberlain, Medina, Ohio, 1891, 35 cents. 



140 



AGRICULTURE. 



NOMBER OF RODS AND OF TILES PER ACRE, 

WITH DRAINS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES 

APART. (Scott.) 



Distance 


Rods 


12-inch 
Tile. 








between 
the Drains, 


(5^ Yards) 
per Acre. 


13-inch 
Tile. 


14-inch 
Tile. 


15-inch 
Tile. 


Feet. 












15 


176 


2904 


2680 


2489 


2323 


18 


146 


2420 


2234 


2074 


1936 


21 


125 


2074 


1915 


1778 


1659 


24 


110 


1815 


1676 


1555 


1452 


27 


Q7 


1613 


1480 


1383 


1290 


30 


88 


1452 


1340 


1244 


1161 


33 


80 


1320 


1219 


1131 


1056 


" 36 


72 


1210 


T117 


1037 


968 


39 


67 


1117 


1031 


957 


893 


42 


62 


1037 


958 


888 


829 



SIZE OF TILE PIPES 

Required for Draining under Average Conditions. 

(Waring.) 

The drains being laid four feet, or more, deep, and laid on 
a well-regulated fall of three inches in a hundred feet : 

For 2 acres ij-inch pipes 

8 *' 2i 

20 '* 3i 

40 '* two 3^ 

50 " 6 



These drains will remove the water fast enough for all prac- 
tical purposes, even after heavy storms; if the pipes are securely 
laid, the drains will only be benefited by the occasional cleaning 
they will receive when running "more than full." 



AGUICULTUIIAL EX(UNEERING. 



Ml 



Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain. 

(McCoNNELL.) 



Fall. 



Acres Drained. 



3-inch 


4-inch 


6-inch 


8-inch 


lo-inch 


Tile. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


18.6 


26.8 


74-4 


150.0 


270.0 


15.1 


21.8 


60.4 


128.0 


220.8 


12.9 


18.6 


51.6 


108.8 


189.6 


II. 9 


17.0 


47-7 


98.0 


170.4 


10.9 


15-6 


43-4 


90.0 


156.0 


10. 


14-5 


39-9 


83.0 


144.4 


9-3 


13-4 


37-2 


77.0 


135-0 


8.1 


12.6 


35 -o 


72.5 


127.0 


7-3 


II. 9 


331 


69.2 


120.6 


6.7 


§•5 


26.6 


56.0 


97-3 


5-7 


8.2 


22.8 


48.0 


83-9 


5-1 


7-5 


20.4 


42.4 


74-4 


4.6 


6.9 


18.4 


38.3 


65.5 


4.1 


5-9 


16.5 


32.6 


60.3 


3-7 


5-2 


14.8 


30.1 


54.0 


3-3 


4-7 


13-3 


28.0 


48.6 


2.9 


4-1 


11.4 


24.0 


41.9 


2.6 


3-7 


10.2 


21.2 


37-2 


2.1 


30 


8.5 


16.8 


30.8 


1.9 


2.8 


7-4 


15-0 


25.0 



12-inch 
Tile. 




426.0 
346.0 
298.4 
269.0 
246.0 
228.1 
213.0 
200.5 
190.5 
154-4 
132.5 
117. o 
107.0 
90.7 
81.6 
74.0 
65.0 
56.0 
47.0 
40.8 



Rule for Obtaining Size of Main Pipes. — Multiply the 
square root of the number of small drains (of fair average 
length) by the diameter of small pipes; the quotient gives the 
diameter of main. 

If the distance apart of drains in feet be denoted by F, that 
in links by Z, and the length of drains in chains per acre by C, 
then 



_ 660 _ 1000 



Number of 12-incli Pipes Required per Acre at 
Different Distances between the Drains: 



Distance. 
Feet. 

12 

15 
18 
21 
37 



Number. 

3630 
2904 
2420 

2073 
1613 



Distance. 




Feet. 




33 


1320 


40 


1089 


50 


871 


60 


726 



142 



AGRICULTURE. 



NUMBER OF ACRES WHICH A TILE OF A GIVEN" 
DIAMETER AND PER CENT GRADE WILIi 
DRAIN WHEN USED AS AN OUTLET. (Elliott.) 

Table 1. — Discharge of Tile from 4 to 20 inches in 
Diameter on a Grade of 1 foot per 100 feet. 



Diameter of 
Tile, Inches. 


Discharge in 
Cubic Feet 
per Second. 


Diameter of 
Tile, Inches. 


Discharg-e in 
Cubic Feet 
per Second. 


t 

8 
9 
lo 


o.i6 
0.49 
I. II 
1-53 
2.05 


12 
IS 
18 
20 


3-4° 
6.29 

IO-37 
13-85 



Table 2. — Grades per 100 feet, and their Square Roots. 



Grade per 


Grade in 
Inches 
(approx- 
imated). 


Square 


Grade per 


Grade in 
Inches 
(approx- 
imated). 


Square 


100 Feet 


Root of 


100 Feet 


Root of 


in Feet. 


Grade. 


in Feet. 


Grade. 


0.04 


M 


0.200 


0.40 


11 


0.632 


•05 


.224 


•45 


.671 


.06 


94 


•245 


.50 


6 


.707 


,08 


% 


.283 


•55 


(>% 


•742 


.09 


I 


.300 


.60 


7/^ 


•775 


.10 


i^ 


.316 


.65 


7M 


.806 


.12 


1% 


.346 


.70 


^% 


•837 


.14 


1% 


•374 


■75 


9 


.866 


.16 


2 


.400 


.80 




.894 


.18 

.20 


2j^ 


.424 
•447 


•85 
.90 


io>4 


.922 
•949 


.25 


3,, 


.500 


•95 


iiJ4 


•975 


.30 


3f^ 


.548 


1. 00 


12 


1,000 


•35 


4M 


•592 









To determine the number of acres that a tile main of 
given size and grade will drain, multiply the discharge of 
the tiles, according to size (see Table i), by the square root 
of the grade upon which it is proposed to lay the main 
(Table 2). When it is desired that the main shall carry i 
inch in depth per acre in twenty-four hours, multiply this 
result by 24 ; if one-half inch, multiply by 48 ; if one-fourth 
inch, multiply by 96. (Farmers' Bulletin, No. 40.) 



AGRICULTUllAL ENGIXEERING. 



143 



RISE OF THE SLOPE FOR 100 FEET. (Waring.) 

Table I. g:ives the rise of the slope for loo feet of the horizontal 
measurement. 
Table II., the rise of the slope for loo feet of its own length. 



Table No. I. 


Table No. II. 


Deg. 


Feet. 


Deg. 


Feet. 


Deg. 


Feet. 


Deg. 


Feet. 


5 


8.749 


50 


119-175 


5 


8.716 


50 


76.604 


ID 


17-633 


55 


142. Sis 


10 


17-365 


55 


81.915 


15 


26.795 


60 


173.205 


15 


25.882 


60 


86.602 


20 


36.397 


65 


214.451 


20 


34.202 


65 


90.631 


25 


46.631 


70 


274.748 


25 


42.262 


70 


93.969 


3" 


57-735 


75 


373-205 


30 


50 


75 


96-593 


35 


70.021 


80 


567.128 


35 


57 358 


80 


98.481 


40 


83.910 


«S 


1143.010 


40 


64 279 


«5 


99.619 


45 


100 






45 


70.711 







Exam/le.—U the horizontal measurement is 100 feet, and the slope is at 
an angle of 10°, the rise will be 17.633 feet. 
If the sloping line (at an angle of 15") is 100 feet, it rises 25.882 feet. 



QUANTITY OF EARTH REMOVED PER ROD OF 
DRAINS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS. (Scott.) 



c" 










Mean Width of Drains 










- 


In. 


In. In. 


i„. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 




7 


8 9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


























_efe 


















1 










Cubic Yards. 




P 






2^ 


0.89 


1.02 


1. 14 


1.27 


1.40 


1-53 


1.65 


1.78 


1. 91 


2.04 


2.16 


2.29 


3 


1.07 


1.22 


1-37 


1-53 


1.68 


I S3 


1.98 


2.14 


2.29 


2.24 


2.60 


2.75 


3^ 


1.25 


1.42 


1.60 


1.78 


I.q6 


2.14 


2.32 


2.49 


2.67 


2.8s 


3-03 


3.21 


4 


1.42 


1.63 


1.83 


2.04 


2.24 


2.44 


2.65 


2.85 


3 05 


3.26 


3-40 


3-66 


5 


1.78 


2.03 


2.29 


2.54 


2.80 


3-05 


3-31 


3.56 


3.^2 


4.07 


4-33 


4.58 



*' If a 4-ft. drain be cut 14 in. wide at top and 4 in. at bot- 
tom, the mean width will be 9 in,, and the quantity of earth 
excavated in cutting each rod will be 1.83 cubic yards ; if 



144 AGRICULTURE. 

the same drain be cut i8 ir^- at top and 8 in. at bottom, tne? 
mean width will be 13 in., ana 2.65 cubic yards of eartji 
will have to be removed in cutting each rod : so that if fne 
digging of the drain costs 6 cents per cubic yard of earth 
moved the narrow drain will cost 11 cents per rod, and the 
other nearly 16 cents per rod, showing the cost to be one 
half larger, quite unnecessarily. 

" The same table will be found useful in helping to fix the 
relative prices of deep and shallow drains ; but it must be 
recollected that the deeper drains will be increased in cost 
not only by reason of the greater quantity of earth which 
has to be moved, but also because of the increased labor of 
lifting the earth to the surface from a greater depth." 



KAINFALLi. (McConnell.) 



iches 


Cubic Feet 


Imperial Gallons. 


Tons 


Depth. 


per Acre. 


per Acre. 


per Acr< 


I 


3.630 


22,635 


lOI.I 


2 


7,260 


45,270 


202.2 


3 


10,890 


67,905 


303.3 


4 


14,520 


90,539 


404.4 


5 


18,150 


113,174 


505.5 


6 


21,780 


135,809 


606.6 


7 


25,410 


158,444 


707.7 


8 


29,040 


181,072 


808.8 


9 


32,670 


203,714 


909.9 


10 


36,300 


226,349 


lOII.O 


II 


39.930 


248,984 


III2.I 


Z2 


43.560 


271,619 


I213.2 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



145 



TABLE SHOWING THE FORCE AND VELOCITY 
OP WIND. (Waring.) 



Miles 
per Hour. 


Feet 
per Minute. 


Lbs. Press- 
ure on 
I sq. ft. 


Description. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

1 
8 

lO 

15 
20 

25 

30 
35 
40 

45 

1° 
60 

80 
100 


88 

264 
352 
440 
528 

2200 

2640 

3080 

3520 
3960 

4400 
5280 
7040 

8800 


.005 
.020 J 
.045 J 
.080 

.iSoV 
.320^ 
.500 {. 
1. 125 ) 
2.000) 
3i25f 
4.500*, 
6.125 f 
8.000) 
10.125$ 
12.500 
18.000 
32.000 

50.000 • 


Barely observable. 

Just perceptible. 

Light breeze. 

Gentle, pleasant wind 

Brisk blow. 
Very brisk. 
High wind. 

Very high. 

Storm. 

Great storm. 

Hurricane. 

Tornado, uprooting trees, sweeping 

off buildings, etc. 



NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET AND ACRES THAT A 

First-class Windmill can Irrigate One Inch in 8 
Hours, Raising^ the Water 10, 15 or 25 Feet. 

(A. R. Wolff.) 





10 Feet. 


15 Feet. 


25 Feet. 


Size of Windmill. 








Sq. Ft. 


Acres 


Sq. Ft. 


Acres 


Sq. Ft. 


Acres 


8i ft. diam. of wheel . . 


11,736.34 


.269 


7,824.74 


.180 


4.744-74 


.109 


10 " " " " .. 


37,161.74 


.8SS 


24.774-75 


•569 


14,767-83 


-339 


12 " " " " .. 


66,765.16 


1-533 


44,509.85 


1.022 


26,134.57 


.600 


'^ w !; u 1 ■■ 


85,982.05 


1.974 


57'32i.ii 


1-316 


34.757-03 


.798 


16 " " " " .. 


120,106.14 


2-757 


80,070.76 


1.838 


49,742.00 


1. 142 


18 '• " " " .. 


192,446.10 


4.418 


123,164.58 


2.827 


75<2i5.i4 


1.727 


20 " " " " .. 


238,395.08 


5-473 


158,930-31 


3-649 


96,211.50 


2.209 


^5 " " " " •• 


410,0^8.09 


9-4x3 


273,359.24 


6.275 


163,533-37 


3-75- 


30 " " " " .. 


831,686.24 


19.093 


561,197.56 


12.883 


331.752-96 


7.616 



146 



AGRICULTURE. 





O 

< 


Average 

Number of 

Hours per Day 

During which 

this Result 

will be 
Obtained. 


ooooooooeoecoooo 


2" 


Ikht 

^|5 P 


^ss'S^vS'?.^; 


c 
rt 

s 

1 

a 

i 
1 . 

o 

O 


1 








'J^ O tM O t^ 


H 








IcSE:^^! 




«o tx o tvo t^ 




1 




O M VO O MOO >0 

lO 1/1 -^ 1/1 M Tj- N 


,«- M H VO T)- M O 


M 




d 
t^ 




00 N 'i- N fO ^ 
roto -<1- M o O 
ir>0\ MID lOOOVO 


\0 t^lO O N M 


d 
\ 


C 

r 


^^^.^^{Q^ 


'^^^SP.S^vS'^ 




tn 




I 


iM 


02 S 3 = :: 3 2 


H 


H'i« 


1 




1 


o 


3 




3 - - 




1 


^i 


^2 2?^'i3gS' 






AGKICULTURAL i:r. (.i :: E j:i!l:ng. 



U7 



Expense 

Horse- 
power, in 
cents 
per 
hour. 


q CO O>00 <><J> ir> N 


I 
1 

2i 

IS 

r 

"o 

i 

a. 




N ro CO r'l^ »0 
<S 1--00 "<l-00 >o c* 

' M ci N ro •<*■ 


£S 


ooooqq«w 




^_^^_^^^^^^, 


For Repairs 
and Depre- 
ciation {s% of 
first cost 

per 
annum). 


c» fOcOl^M <^t^O 

' H H M N 


For Interest on 
First Cost (first 
cost including 
cost of Avind- 
mill, pump, and 
tower) at 5% per 
annum. 


■ M M M « 


Average 

Number of 

Hours 

Day 

During 

which this 

Quantity 

will be 

Raised. 


0000000000000000 


Equiva- 
lent 
Actual'Use- 
ful 
Horse- 
power 
Developed . 


■•J-NMOOMHON-* 

q M cj N ^\q t>. ro 


Gallons 

of 

Water 

Raised 

25 Feet per 

Hour. 


M cT ei fo in t^ fT 




*J2 J - 3 - 3 3 
00 O « *vO CO >« 

M H M M W N N 






--s^>>g| 



148 



AGRICULTURE. 



NOMINAL. HORSE-POWER REQUIRED FOR THE 
DISCHARGE OF GIVEN QUANTITIES OF WATER 
WITH LIFTS OF 10 AND 20 FEET. (Scott.) 



Diameter of Pipe, 
Inches. 


Gallons 

Discharged per 

Minute. 


Nominal H.P. 

required for a 

lo-foot Lift. 


Nominal H.P. 
required for a 
20-foot Lift. 


3 


lOO 


I 


2 


4 


200 


^14 


3 


1 


350 
500 


^% 


4 
5 


I 


759 
1000 


3 

4 


6 
8 


xo 


1500 


6 


10 


X2 

14 


2300 
2800 


8 
10 


14 
16 


15 
i8 


3300 
6000 


12 
20 


20 
35 



IRRIGATION. (Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

A water right is the right or privilege of using water for 
irrigating purposes, either in a definite quantity or upon a 
prescribed area of land, such right or privilege being cus- 
tomarily acquired either by priority of use or by purchase. 
In many parts of the arid region a water right is an exceed- 
ingly valuable property. The average value of the water 
rights of the entire arid region, as determined by the cen- 
sus of 1890, was $26 per acre, and there are fruit-growing 
districts in California where water rights have been sold at 
as high as $1500 per miner's inch, or from $100 to 
$500 per acre, according to the amount used on any given 
area of land. 

The duty of water is the extent of the service it will per- 
form when used for irrigating purposes, that is, the num- 
ber of acres a given quantity of water will adequately irri- 
gate under ordinary circumstances. This is usually from 
100 to 200 acres for each second-foot. Where water is 
abundant the duty has been known to be as low as 50 
acres, and where very scarce as high as 500 acres, to the 
second-foot. 



AGRICUJ.TLKAL ENGINEERING. 149 

A mitier's inch is theoretically such a quantity of water as 
will flow through an aperture i inch square in a board 2 
inches thick under a head of water of 6 inches in one sec- 
ond of time, and it is equal to 0.194 gallon, or 0.0259337 
cubic foot, per second, or to 11.64 gal., or i.556o24cubic ft., 
per minute. The amount of water flowing through a given 
aperture in a given time varies, however, with the head of 
water over the opening, and also with the form of the 
opening. In Colorado the miner's inch legalized by statute 
equals 11. 7 gal. per min. The California miner's inch, how^ 
ever, equals only 9 gal. per min., 100 Colorado inches being, 
accordingly, equal to 130 California inches. One hundred 
Colorado inches will cover an acre to a depth of 5.2 ft. in 
24 hours ; 100 California inches will cover the same area 
only to a depth of 4 ft. in the same time. Fifty California 
inches are, therefore, approximately equal to i second- 
foot, and 50 Colorado inches equal to about three tenths 
more. 

An acre-foot of water is the amount required to cover an 
acre of ground to a depth of i foot. This is 43,560 cubic 
feet, or 325,851.45 gal. Its weight is 1213 tons 2113 pounds, 
at 2240 pounds to the ton. 

The amount of water required to cover an acre of ground 
to a depth of i inch is 3630 cubic feet, or 27,154.29 gal. Its 
weight is loi tons 362I pounds, at 2240 pounds to the 
ton. 

A secojid-foot is the most satisfactory because the most 
definite unit of measurement for flowing water. It is used 
by the U. S. Government in the gauging of rivers and 
streams, and is rapidly superseding the miner's inch in the 
measurement of water for irrigation. It is the quantity rep- 
resented by a stream i foot wide and i foot deep flowing 
at the average rate of i foot per second. In other words, 
it is I cub. ft. per second, 60 cub. ft. per min., 3600 cub. 
ft. per hour, etc. A stream flowing continuously at the 
average rate of i second-foot would carry in one day of 24 
hours 86,400 cub. ft., or 646,316.9 gal., sufficient to cover 
iii9 acres to a depth of i ft. Flowing continuously for one 
year of 365 days, such a stream would carry 31,536,000 cub. 



150 AGRICULTURJ!. 

ft., or 235,905,678.7 gal., sufficient to cover 723}!! acres tea 
depth of I ft. 

The stcb-huniid region is the strip of country running 
north and south between the arid region, where irrigation 
is absolutely necessary to the successful prosecution of 
agriculture, and those portions of the United States in 
which the rainfall is usually sufficient for agricultural pur- 
poses. It includes portions of North Dakota, South Da- 
kota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, and may be described 
as a region where irrigation is not always necessary, but 
where agricultural operations cannot, with any assurance 
of success, be undertaken without it. 

The average value of the irrigated land in farjus in the 
United States was ascertained by the census of 1890 to be 
$83.28 per acre, and that of the non-irrigated land in farms 
$20.95 per acre. 

The average annual value of the agricultural products of 
the irrigated land was ascertained to be $14.89 per acre irri- 
gated, and that of those of the non-irrigated land $6.80 for 
each acre improved. 

The average first cost of the irrigated land, including 
purchase money, water rights, etc., was ascertained to 
have been $8.15 per acre, and the average annual cost of 
the water supply $1.07 per acre. 

The total value of the irrigated farms of the United 
States, as reported by the farmers themselves, was, in round 
figures, $296,850,000, an increase of $219,360,000, or 283 per 
cent, upon their cost, including land, water right, fences, 
and preparation for cultivation. 

The total value of the productive irrigating systems was 
found to be $94,412,000, an increase of $64,801,000, or 219 
per cent, upon their cost. 



AGKiCULlURAL I^NGIJ^EERING. 



151 



CARRYING CAPACITY OF PIPES, GALLONS PER 
MINUTE. (Wuxox.) 





— . 


„ . 


^^. 


— . 


^ . 


^^ 


-« 


— J 




aj>« 


«■« 


C9 '~' 


a-^ 


njvH 


rt '*^ 


rt "*^ 


n! ''^ 


Size of 


^0 


tx.0 


t,o 


^R 


t.,0 


^8 


t^S 


fc-s 


Pipe. 




XI " 


J3 ^ 


U Vh 


J3 « 


0: 


0: 


g- 




C V 


c 5 






c a; 


° 1^ 


w 






■T a 


•7 a 


•T a 


T a 


•7 a 


V a 


^r a 


"v a 








fO 


\o 










3 inch. 


13 


19 


23 


32 


40 


46 


64 


79 


4 " 


27 


33 


47 


66 


81 


93 


131 


163 


6 " 


75 


'°l 


129 


183 


224 


258 


364 


450 


8 " 


153 


2X6 


265 


375 


460 


527 


750 


923 


9 " 


205 


290 


355 


503 


617 


712 


I, ODD 


1,240 


lO " 


267 


378 


463 


655 


803 


926 


1,310 


1,613 


12 " 


422 


596 


730 


',033 


1.^73 


1,468 


2,076 


2,554 


15 " 


740 


1,021 


1,282 


1.818 


2,224 


2,464 


3,617 


4,467 


18 " 


1,168 


1. 65 1 


2,022 


2,860 


3,508 


4.045 


5,704 


7.047 


24 " 


2,3Q6 


3,387 


4,155 


5,874 


7,202 


8.303 


",744 


,4,466 


30 " 


4.187 


5.920 


7.252 


10,557 


12,580 


14,504 


20,516 


25,277 



FLOW OF WATER THROUGH STRAIGHT PIPES 

(Collet.) 
Flowing Full, in Gallons per Minute. 





Head of Water Divided by Length of Pipe. 




loo 


A 


^V 


^ 


T^ 


3 
I'd 


5 

Try 


T% 


i 


T^, 








no A 


no6 


.046 
.089 


06 


.077 
.158 


086 


i 










056 




075 


.124 


.18 


r^ 










14 




21 


.26 


.34 


■44 


•50 












31 
83 




44 
2 


•52 
1-5 


.72 
2.0 


.92 
2.6 


1.04 
2.9 


* 


.22 


•33 


•5 




I 


i 


.46 


.70 


I.O 


I 


8 


2 


5 


3-1 


4.1 


5-3 


6.0 


i 


1-33 


1.98 


2.9 


4 


9 


7 




8.9 


II. 7 


15 


16.9 


I 


2.79 


4-15 


6.1 


ID 


14 


8 


18.4 


24 


31 


35 


li 


4.96 


7-36 


10.8 


18 


26 


32 


42 


54 


61 


1* 


7.93 


11.75 


17.2 


28 


41 


51 


67 


86 


97 


li 


II. 7 


17.4 


25-5 


42 


61 


76 


100 


128 


144 


2 


i6.6 


24 


36 


59 


86 


106 


140 


179 


202 


2* 


29 


43 


63 


104 


151 


188 


246 


315 


354 


3 


46 


69 


101 


166 


240 


298 


390 


500 


562 


4 


98 


144 


210 


344 


498 


617 


808 


1033 


1162 




T73 


2S4 


370 


606 


876 


1085 


1419 


1815 


2040 


"^ 


227 


404 


589 


959 


T389 


T720 


2248 


2876 


3230 



If the diameter be doubled, nearly 5.8 times the quantity can be passed. 



t{'->. 



15^ 



AGRICULTURE. 



POWKR REQUIRED TO RAISE WATER FROM 
DEEP WELLS BY PU3IPING. (Appleby.) 



Gallons of water raised per hour 


200 


350 


500 


650 


800 


1000 


Height of lift for one man, in feet. . . 

" " " " " donkey, in feet 

u ». «i »« u horse, " 

" " " " " H.P. steam, {_ 

in feet ) 


00 
180 
630 

990 


51 
102 
357 
561 


36 

72 

252 

396 


28 
56 
196 

308 


22 

45 
354 
242 


18 
36 
T26 

198 



APPROXIMATE COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OP' 
PIPE USED FOR IRRIGATION. (Wilcox.) 



c 


c a.> 






hi 

cm 3 


CO 


c 


i 


Q 


C/3 •Z 


a, iJ " 

in ^ 


4; *j " 

{/3 Z 




> 


1 


e 


6 


$0.32 


$0.41 


$0.5:^ 


f 0.72 J 


$o.i6i 




$0.12 


8 


.42 


• 51 


.62 


I.04J 


.22 






20 


10 


•53 


.60 


•85 


1.42 


•33 






26 


12 


.63 


.68 


.98 


1.84 


.4ii 






32 


M 


.69 


•75 


1. 17 


2.30 


•55 


$0.74 




38 


t6 


.82 


•93 


1-25 


2.83 


.68f 


■94 




45 


18 


.91 


1 .00 


1-43 


3^37 


.82^ 


1.08 




53 


20 


1. 00 


1. 14 


1.63 


3.97 


■96i 


1.22 




60 


22 


1.05 


1.30 


1.85 


4.62 


1 .21 


1.32 




b8 


24 




1.46 


2.00 


5-33 


i.37i 


1.40 




Ho 







AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF CONSTRUCTING 
IRRIGATING CANALS AND DITCHES. 

(Eleventh U. S. Census.) 



States and Territories. 



Under 5 Feet 
in Width. 



5 to TO Feet 
in Width. 



[o Feet and 
Over in 
Width. 



General average 

Arizona ... 

California 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

New Mexico 

Oregon 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming 

Sub-humid region... 



$481 



I471 
88s 
380 
205 

325 
200 
3T0 
260 

493 
285 



$1,628 



$1,674 

5-957 

1,131 

8to 

800 

1,150 

581 

1,060 

1,025 

1,236 

837 

447 



$5,603 



$5i274 

15,5" 

5,258 

1,320 

2,300 

' 6,666 
1,300 
3,072 
2.571 
3.884 
1,884 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



153 



CAPACITIES OF WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 

(Irrigation Age.) 

Sizes of Irrigation Mills and Pumps best Adapted for 
each other to Work Successfully under Ordinary 
Conditions. 





a 


















a 


"rn 




X 




■«^ 




■^; <=• 


= 


3 


i 


-2 


>« c« 


"o^ 


o.S 


> 


■5.2 


i 

^ 


^ 1) 


o 
a 




*j u (U 


III 


^ i! i; 


o S i; 


>0 


■(n 


Q 


Q 


J 


< 


<; 


«< 


<; 


c/o 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. and 
under. 


In. 


Gals. 


Gals. 


Gals. 


Acres, 


Feet. 



lo-foot Mills. 



8 30 

4 I 75 



3,660 
2,580 
1,320 



87,840 
61,920 
31,680 



12-foot Mills. 



10 


30 


12 


4^ 


7,500 


180,000 


103 


8 


50 


12 


3i 


6,300 


151,200 


86 


6 


75 


12 


^\ 


2,700 


64,800 


37 


4 


125 


12 


f 


1,320 


31,680 


18 



90X75 

Q0X60 
60X40 
50X30 



14'foot Mills. 





12 


30 




63 


10.620 


254.880 


146 


125X80 




10 


50 




43 


7,260 


174,240 


100 


90X75 




8 


75 




2f 


4,620 


100,880 


63 


75X50 




6 


125 




If 


2,940 


71,560 


40 


65X40 




4 


175 




1 


1,680 


40,320 


23 


50X30 



* Amount of land that can be covered i ft. deep with windmills work- 
ing- at the rate of 15 hours per day for 300 days in the year. Acres cov- 
ered 1 ft. deep. 

t Capable of holding water for 24 liours* continuous pumping-. These 
sizes should have 4 ft. depth of water, height of bank 5 ft,, width of base 
16 ft., 2 ft. of water below discharge-pipe not included. These reservoirs 
to connect with additional reservoir by overflow-pipe in order to utilize 
full capacity of mills and pumps. Overflow-reservoir should be of i-and 2- 
acre capacity, 8 ft. deep, banks 9 ft. high, base of bank 45 ft., acre size 
209 ft. on each side, corners rounded; a-acre size 209 X 418 ft. 



154 



AGillCULtUM. 



THE CALIFORNIA WEIR TABLE. (W.icoj^) 



Depth. 


Miner's 

Inches. 


H 


.ot 


H 


.04 
.07 


H 


.12 


98 


•17 


% 


.22 


% 


.27 




•33 


x]/^ 


•39 


it^ 


.46 


1% 


•54 


iV^ 


.62 


1% 


.69 


;i 


•77 
.86 


2 


•95- 


2V6 


1,04 


2^ 


1.13 


2% 


1.22 


2^ 


1.32 


2% 


1.42 


2-M 


1.52 , 


^J-i 


1.63 


3 


1.74 




1.86 


3 14 


1.97 


3%, 


2.08 


% 


2.19 
2.31 


M 


2.43 



Depth 



4H 
4-^8 



5 
5^ 

i 

6 

6^ 
6)4 
6^^ 

6^ 

6M 

6?^ 

7 

7^ 

7^ 
7^ 



Miner's 


Depth. 


Miner's 


Inches. 


Inches. 


^•56 


7% 


1 
7.04 1 


2.69 1 


7H 


7 


22 


2.8r 


M 


7 


40 


2 93 


8 


7 


S8 


3 •07 ' 


3^8 


7 


76 


3^9 1 


8ia 


7 


93 


3^33 


s% 


8 


12 


3-47 1 


8^ 


8 


30 


3.6t i 


8% 


8 


48 


3-75 ' 




8 


67 


3-89 1 


8 


86 


4^03 


9 





OS 1 


4.18 


9^ 


9 


23 


4 -.32 




9 


42 


4-47 


9% 


9 


62 


4.62 


oj^ 


Q 


81 


4-77 


9^^ 


TO 


00 


4.Q2 


?i 


10 


19 


5.08 


10 


39 : 


5^24 


10 


10 


59 1 


5-39 


10^4 


to 


99 : 


5-54 1 


lol^ 


II 


■\o i 


5-71 


JO'>4 


n 


80 ' 


5^87 


II 


12 


22 ! 


6.04 


li^ 


12 


6s 1 


6.20 


13 


06 I 


6.37 ' 


!■% 


13 


3" 


6.5J 


1.2 


' ^1 


Q4 


6.70 


I2M 


14 


38 


6.87 


X2j^ 


14 


82 1 



Depth. 


Miner's 
Inches. 


12M 


15.27 


13 


15-72 


13^ 


16.18 


13!^ 


16.64 


13M 


17.10 


14 


17-57 


M^ 


18.04 




18.52 


14% 


IQ.OO 


15 


19.48 


^M 


19.98 


^5^ 


20.47 


15M 


20.97 


16 


21.47 


x6^ 


22.47 


17 


23 • 50 


I7V^ 


^4-54 


18 


25^5B 


i8l^ 


26.65 


19 


27.74 


X9J^ 


28.83 


20 


29.95 


20.1^ 


31 •07 


21 


32.21 


21^ 


33^36 


22 


34-52 


22l^ 


33-70 


23 


3''^ 9^ 


23^ 


38.10 


24 


ST-S"! 



CAPACITY OF CISTERNS AND TANKS, 
ill Gallons, for Each Twelve Inches in Depth. 

(A. R. Wolff.) 



Diameter in 
Feet. 


Gallons. 


Diameter in 
Feet. 


Gallons. 


Diameter in 
Feet. 


Gallons. 


I.O 


5.87 


6.5 


248.23 


11. 


710.90 


2.0 


23-50 


7.0 


287.88 


II. 


777-05 


2.5 


36.72 


7-5 


330.48 


12.0 


846.03 


3-0 


52.88 


8.0 


376.00 


13-0 


992.91 


, • .3.5 


71-97 


8.5 


424.48 


14.0 


"51-54 


4.0 


94.00 


9.0 


475.89 


15-0 


1321.92 


4-5 


118.87 


9-5 


530.24 


20.0 


2350.08 


5.0 


146.88 


10. 


587.52 


25.0 


3672.00 


S-5 


177.72 


10.5 


647.74 


30.0 


5287.68 


6.0 


R11.51 











AGRICULTURAL ENGIKEERIN-Q. 



155 



Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, Per Foot in Depth. 

(Hall.) 



Square Cistern. 



Barrels. 

5 feet by 5 feet holds s-52 

6 '' '' 6 " " 8.54 

7 " " 7 " " 11.63 

8 " " 8 " " 15.19 

9 " " 9 " " 1939 

10 ' 10 " •* 23.74 



Circular Cistern. 



Barrels. 

5 feet in diameter holds 4.66 

6 " " " " .... 8.54 

7 " " " " .... 11.63 

8 *; " " " .... 15.19 

9 * " " .... 19.39 
10 .... 23.74 



ROAD-MAKING. (Campbell) 

Drainage. — Perfect drainage, first of the foundation of 
the roadbed, secondly of the road surface, are the points 
in road-making on which too much stress cannot be laid. 

The first is accomplished by underdrainage, tile drains 
being laid at a depth of three or more feet below the sur- 
face on each side of the roadbed at the foot of the grade 
and parallel to it. Care should be taken to fit and settle 
the tile in the trench so that, when refilling with earth, 
they will not be displaced. As a rule 2^- to 4-in. tile will 
be sufficient. The joints should be close, and the grade 
a true line. Loose joints and an uneven grade allow silt to 
pass into the tile and remain there, destroying the drain. 

Surface drainage is accomplished by open drains on each 
side of the grade, having sufficient capacity to drain, both 
the roadbed and the land adjoining. With open drains and 
with tile drains make and maintain a free outlet to the 
nearest watercourse. A drain without an outlet is useless. 

Croivnuig the Road. — The graded portion of the road 
should be wide enough to accommodate the travel upon it, 
and not greater, the slope being uniform, not heaped in 
the centre. The crown should be well above the overflow 
of storm water, and should have a grade sufficient to shed 
water readily to the open ditches on either side. Do not 
round it up so as to make the grade steep and dangerous, 
under the mistaken impression that better drainage will 
thereby be secured. Nor should it be so low as to allow 
water to stand upon it in depressions. Under ordinary 
circumstances one inch or one inch and a half to the foot is 



156 AGRICULTURE. 

a proper grade; that is, a roadbed twenty-six feet wide 
should be from thirteen to twenty inches higher at the 
center than at the side. 

Quality of Gravel. — The gravel should preferably be 
sharp, clean, and of uniform size. Pit gravel usually con- 
tains too much earthy matter, and where the latter is in 
excess, the gravel, as a road-making material, is useless. 
Lake gravel is apt to be rounded, water-worn, and lacking 
in the necessary earthy matter to make a solid and compact 
surface, but is generally a better road material than pit 
gravel. A coating of pit gravel with a surfacing of creek 
gravel is a good combination. All large stones should be 
removed, as they will work to the surface, and will then 
roll loosely or form rough protuberances. 

Placing the Gravel. — The gravel should be spread evenly 
over the surface of the sub-grade to a depth of six or eight 
inches, and to the required width, then rolled with a heavy 
roller. Rolling should be performed in showery weather, 
as it is impossible to consolidate dry earth or gravel. The 
heavier the roller the better will be the results, but if a 
heavy roller cannot be obtained, a light roller is much bet- 
ter than none. The roller should be passed over the sur- 
face until the gravel or earth is so compact as not to be 
displaced and rutted by the wheels of a wagon passing 
over it with an ordinary load. The surface must be main- 
tained smooth and hard, to shed water and resist wear. 
Every municipality should have a roller, but whether one 
can be obtained or not the gravel should not be left in a 
heap just as it falls from the wagon. Spread it evenly. 

Repairs. — Gravel roads already constructed will need re- 
pair. By the use of road machinery, scrape the surface 
and cut off the corners, which will have formed at the foot of 
the grade by the washing down of dusty material from the 
crown of the road. Loosen the surface, particularly that 
part of the traveled portion and where the road is rutted, 
with picks, or, if possible, with road machinery ; then apply 
a coating of gravel, and roll thoroughly. It is of more im- 
portance, however, to see that the drains are not obstructed 
in their course and that their outlets are free and open.* 

* See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 95, "Good Roads for Farmers,'" Washing- 
ton, 1899. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



157 



IMPORTANCE OF GOOD ROADS. 

It is estimated that it costs a farmer more to haul a bushel of 
wheat than it does a railroad to haul a ton ; that our poor roads 
cost the farmer at least f 15.00 a year for every horse, and that 
good earth roads would save more than half the cost of hauling, 
and good permanent roads more than three quarters of it. 

(GiLMORB.) 

Force Required to Draw a Load on Different Kinds of Roads. 





Force 

Required to 

Draw a Gross 

Load of 
2240 Pounds. 


Steepest 
Grade (rise 
per 100 ft.) 

on which 
Vehicle will 

not Roll 
Back. 


Draught on a Level Com- 
pared with that on Dif- 
ferent Grades, Rise in 
feet per loo feet. 







3 


6 


9 


12 


15 


Earth road 

Gravel " 

Macadam road .. . 
Telford " ... 
Plank " ... 
Stone trackway,. 


Pounds 
200 
I43t 

41 

I2i 


Feet 

6.4 
2.9 
2.0 

1.8 
•5 




1-3 
1-5 
2.0 

2-5 

2.6 
6.4 


1-7 
1.9 
3-1 
3-9 
4-3 
11.7 


2.0 
2.4 
4.1 
5-4 
5-9 
17. 1 


2-3 

2.9 

7-5 

22.3 


2.7 
3-3 
6.1 
8.2 
9.1 
27-5 



TRACTIVE FORCE REQUIRED FOR CARRIAGES 

of one ton, on a level road. (McConnell.) 

Force of Trac- 
Description of Road. tion per Ton. 

I. On rails 8 lbs. 

2- Well-made pavement 33 " 

3. Macadamized road 44 to 67 " 

4. Turnpike, hard and dry 68 " 

5. " dirty 88 " 

6. Hard compact loam 119 " 

7. Gravel 150 " 

8. Sandy and gravelly 210 " 

9. Ordinary by-road 237 " 

10. Turnpike, newly-gravelled 320 " 

11. Loose sandy road 457 " 

A horse produces his greatest mechanical effect in drawing a 

load 2\ miles per hour with a tractive force of 150 lbs. 



158 



AGRICULTURE. 



FRACTION OF THF WEIGHT OF A VEHICLE 
AND LOAD REQUIRED TO MOVE SAME ON A 
LEVEL ROAD. (Morin.) 







Character of the Vehicle. 




Character of the Road. 


T3 

— • 

4) 2 


M 

m 


1 S) 

c 
x; u 


2-horse Car- 
riages. 
Body on 
Springs, 


Firm soil, covered with gravel 
4 to 6 inches deep 








1 


Firm embankment, covered 

with gravel ij to i^ inch. deep. 

Earth embankment, in very 

good condition 

Bridge flooring of thick oak 

plank 




Broken-stone Road : 
In very good condition, very 

dry, compact and even 

A little moist or a little dusty.. 
Firm, but with ruts and mud. 
Very bad, 'ruts 4 to 4J inches 


t 




Walk. 

i 


Trot. 

t 

1^ 


Walk. 

1 


Trot 

1 






Good pavement, dry 

" " covered with 
mud 






■A 




i, 

A 


5^S 
3^ 



TRACTIVE POWER OF HORSES AT DIFFERENT 
SPEED. (Trautwine.) 
The average traction of a horse on a level and actually 
pulling for ten hours in the day may be assumed as follows: 



Miles per hour. 


Lbs. Traction. 


Miles per hour. 


Lbs. Traction. 


i 


333-33 


2i 


HI. II 


I 


250 


2i 


100 


li 


200 


2f 


QO.QI 


li 


166.66 


3 


83.33 


If 


142.86 


3t 


7^-43 


2 


125 


4 


62.50 



If the horse v^rorks for a smaller number of hours, his 
traction may increase as the hours diminish, down to about 
5 hours per day and for speeds of about from i^ to 3 miles 
per hour. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



159 



EFFECT OF INCLINATION ON TRACTIVE FORCE. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Rate of 

Inclination. 


Angle with the 
Level. 


Tractive Force, 
Pounds. 


Equivalent 
Length of Level 
Road in Miles. 


Level. 


0° 00' 00" 


38 


I. GO 


I in 500 


6 53 


42 


I. ID 


I in 100 


34 23 


58 


1.52 


I in 80 


42 58 


63 


1.66 


I in 60 


57 18 


71 


1 87 


I in 50 


I 08 16 


78 


2.05 


I in 40 


» 25 57 


88 


2.30 


I in 30 


I 54 37 


104 


2-73 


I in 25 


2 17 26 


118 


3- 10 


I in 20 


2 51 21 


138 


3.63 


I in 15 


3 48 51 


171 


4.50 


I in 10 


5 42 58 


238 


6.26 



The table gives the tractive force necessary to draw^ i ton 
over the best macadam road of various grades, and the 
equivalent length of each mile of grade in miles of level 
road. 

The effect of the inclination can be calculated from the 
following formula: 

R = F-\- aW, 

where F = force required to draw the load on the level, 
a = the grade, expressed by a fraction, IV= the weight of 
the load in pounds, R = force required to draw the load up 
the incline in question. 

According to Gillespie, if a horse can pull on a level 
1000 pounds, on a rise of 



I /oot in 

100 feet he draws 900 lbs. 

50 " ** " 810 " 

44 " •' " 750 •' 

40 " " " 720 " 

30 •• " " 640 " 



I /oo^ in 

25 feet he draws 540 lbs 
24 '* " " 500 " 
20 " " " 400 " 
10 " " " 250 " 



160 



AGRICULTURE. 



EFFECTS OF SURFACE ON TRACTIVE FORCE. 

(Various Authorities, compiled by Herring.) 



Description of Road. 


Tractive 
Force, 
Lbs. 


Loose sand 


448 
320 
222 
147 

88 

75 
224 
112 

89 

140 to 97 

160 

112 

64 
75 to 42 

45 


Loose gravel (deep) 

Loose gravel (4 inches) .. 
Common gravel road .... 

Good gravel 

Hard-rolled gravel 

Ordinary dirt road 

Hard clay. ... . . 


Hard, dry dirt road 

Macadam, little used. . 




Macadam, common 

Good macadam, wet 

Best French macadam. . . 





Tractive 


Description of Road. 


Force, 
Lbs. 


Very hard and smooth 




macadam 


46 


Best macadam 


52 to 32 


Cobblestone, ordinary ... 


140 


Cobblestone, good 


75 


Belgian block 


56 to 26 


Belgian block in Paris ... 


54 to 34 


Belgian block, good 


34i 


Stone block, ordinary 


90 


Stone block, good 


45 


Stone block, London 


36 




17 
I2i to 13J 


Granite tramway .... 




8 to 11^ 





The velocity is in all cases taken at 3 miles per hour. 

COST OF HAULING FARM PRODUCE IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 



' 


bii 
g 

V 5 


m 

rttJ 
< 


si 

a- 

< 


m 


Eastern States 

Northern States 

Middle-Southern States .... 


Miles. 
5-9 

8:l. 

12.6 

8.8 

23-3 

12. 1 


Lbs. 
2216 

1397 
2409 
2197 


Cents. 
32 
27 
3t 

25 

22 
22 


$1.89 
1.86 
2.72 
3.05 
1.94 
5.12 






Pacific Coast and Mountain States 


Averages for the United States. . . . 


2002 


25 


$3.02 



* Middle States. 

TJie total weight of farm products in 1895 was estimated 
at 219,824,227 tons ; if the forest products hauled over the 
public roads be added to this, we get 313,349,227 tons, 
which at $3.02 per ton, makes a total for the annual cost of 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERIISTG. 



161 



hauling on the public roads of $946,414,665. Nearly, if not 
quite, two-thirds of this vast expense may be saved by road 
improvement, and this at a total cost not exceeding the 
losses of 3, or at most 4, years by bad roads (Circ. 19, Office 
of Road Inquiry, U. S. Dept. Agr.). 

LABOR ONE HORSE IS ABLE TO PERFORM 

at diflferent rates of speed on canals, railroads, and 
turnpikes. (Drawing force, 83^ lbs.) (Waring.) 







Useful Effect for i Day, drawn i mile. 




Duration of 

Day's Work, 

hours. 




Speed per 








Hour, miles. 


On a Canal, 


On a Railroad, 


On a Turnpike, 






tons. 


tons. 


tons. 


-^ 


"^ 


520 


"5 


14 


3,, 


8 


243 


92 


12 


3H 


6 


154 


82 


10 


4 


4%^ 


102 


72 


9 


5 


2 9/10 


52 


57 


7-3 


6 


2 


30 


48 


6 


7 


i^ 


19 


41 


5 


8 


^% 


12.8 


36 


45 


9 


9/10 


9 


32 


4 


10 


H 


6.5 


28.8 


3.6 



PERFORMANCE OF ONE TEAM AND PLOUGH IN 
A DAY, IN ACRES AND TENTHS. (Waring.) 



^.S . 




«*H ^ 




>« ^ 




vw ^ 




°«!S 




°«s 








°"^ 




Width 

furrow 

inch 


Acres. 




Acres. 


III 


Acres. 




Acres. 




^a" 




^ = 




^^ 




5 


I.O 


12 


2.4 


2 


4.8 


5}^ 


133 


6 


1.2 


14 


2.8 


2^ 


6.0 




14.4 


7 


1.4 


16 


3-2 


3 


7.2 


6^ 


1S.6 


8 


1.6 


18 


3-6 


3^ 


8.4 


7 


16.8 


9 


1.8 


20 


4.0 


4 


9.6 


7^ 


18.0 


10 


2.0 


22 


4-4 


4^ 


10.8 


8 


19.2 


II 


2.3 






5 


12.0 







163 



AGRICULTUKE. 



THE EFFECT OF WIDE WAGON-TIRES. 

The effect of wide and narrow tires for wagons is well 
illustrated by the following results of carefully conducted 
experiments by the Studebaker Wagon Co., South Bend, 
Ind. In the trials given in the second column i^-inch tires 
had been substituted for 4-inch tires, (Agr. of Pa., 1894; 
see also Mich. Exp. Sta., Bull. 165; Mo. Exp. Sta., Bull. 13, 
and Utah Exp. Sta., Bull. 4.) 



Weight of wagon and load 

Draft to Stan load on block pavement 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on block pave- 
ment .. 

Draft to start load on good hard, sandy road 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on good hard, 
sandy road 

Draft to start load on good level gravel road 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on good level 
gravel road 

Draft to start load on muddy road 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on muddy road.. 



Width of Tires. 


4 inches. 


i^ inches. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


4345 
350 


4235 
300 


100 
700 


75 
725 


27s 
600 


300 
650 


175 
800 
550 


175 

900 
500 



AVERAGE QUANTITY OF STONE REQUIRED PER 
YEAR TO KEEP lO FEET OF ROAD, WIDTH = 
20 FEET, IN REPAIR. (Herschel.) 



Cub. ft. 

1. Good material and heavy travel 15-20 = 

2. Good material and medium amount of 

travel 10-15 = 

3. Good material and light travel 5-10 = 

4. Medium material and heavy travel. .. . 20-25 = 

5. Medium material and medium amount 

of travel 15-20 = 

6. Medium material and light travel 10-15 — 

7. Third-rate material and heavy travel. . 25-30 = 

8. Third-rate material and medium amount 

of travel 20-25 = 

9. Third-rate material and light travel. . . 15-20 = 



Cub. 


yds. 


.55- 


•74 


.37- 


.55 


.18- 


.37 


.74- 


.92 


•55- 


.74 


.37- 


• 55 


.92-] 


.10 


•74- 


.92 


•55- 


•74 



AGRICULTURAL lilNGTNEERING. 



16; 



INTERIOR DIMENSIONS OF FARM BUILDINGS. 

(McCONNELL.) 

Height, 



Barn 

" (straw) 

Cattle feeding-boxes, double 

" " " single. 

Cattle-sheds, for each ammal 

Cart-sheds, etc., each arch 

Cow-stable, for each cow, double 

" " " " " single 

Dairy 

Fold -yards, for each animal 

Granary 

Hospital 

Manure-house 

Pigsties, for each 3 animals 

Poultry- house 

Root-house 

Stable, for each horse 

Workshop . 

General dimensions of other apartments 



Length. 


Breadth. 


ft. 


ft. 


40 


20 


60 


20 


10 


20 


10 


10 


5 


15 


8 


20 


4 


30 


4 


20 


20 


20 


5 


30 


30 


20 


18 


18 


18 


18 


6 


10 


18 


18 


20 


20 


6.5 


18 


18 


18 




18 



6J ft. allowed to the length of the stable for each horse in it 
and 7 or 8 ft. for every pair of cows in cow-stable. Horses 
must each have 1200 cu. ft. of space, and cattle 800 cu, ft,, 
where stalled in stables. Cattle-boxes to be sunk 2 ft. below 
surface and raised by a dwarf wall i ft. above. Cattle-folds 
and sheds should have a length of 5 ft. for every animal they 
are intended to contain; when covered, 150 sq. ft. allowed to 
every head. The pigsties have small open areas attached to 
each. 



RECIPE FOR WHITEWASH. 

Slake half a bushel of unslaked lime with boiling water, 
cover during the process to keep in steam, strain the liquid 
through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it a peck of 
salt, previously dissolved in warm water, three pounds of 
ground rice boiled to a thin paste and stirred in while hot, 
half a pound of Spanish whiting, and one pound of clear 
glue, previously dissolved by soaking in cold water and 
then hanging over a slow fire in a small pot hung in a larger 



164 



AGRICULTURE. 



one filled with water. Add five gallons of hot water to the 
mixture, stir well, and let it stand a few days, covered from 
dirt. It should be applied hot, for which purpose it can be 
kept in a kettle or portable furnace. The east end of the 
White House in Washington is embellished by this white- 
wash. It is recommended by the government for white- 
washing light-houses. 

A pint of this wash mixture, if properly applied, will 
cover one square yard, and will be almost as serviceable as 
paint for wood, brick, or stone, and is much cheaper than 
the cheapest paint. 

Coloring matter may be added as desired. For cream 
color add yellow ochre; pearl or lead, add lampblack or 
ivory-black ; fawn, add proportionately four pounds of 
umber to one pound of Indian red and one pound of com- 
mon lampblack; common stone color, add proportionately 
four pounds raw umber to two pounds lampblack. 



TABLE OF CUT NAILS. (Trautwine.) 





Name. 


Length, 
Inches. 


No. per 
Lb. 


Name. 


Length, 
Inches. 


No. per 
Lb. 


" Common " nails 


2-penny 
3- '' fine 

3- " 

4- ' 

5- " 

6- " 

i: " 


I 

li 
li 
If 

2 

2i 


7^6 
626 
440 
300 
210 
163 
123 
93 1 


lo-penny 
12- " 
20- " 
30- " 

40- " 

60- " 


3 

3i 

4 

4^ 

5 

5i 


66 
50 
32 
19 
16 
13 
10 


Finishing-nails... 


4-penny 

5- " 

6- " 
8- " 


If 

2 

2i 


470 
330 
196 
1x6 

2S0 
200 


lo-penny 
12- '■ 

20- " 


4 


84 

65 
50 


Slating-nails 


3-penny 

4- " 




S-penny 

6- ' 


If 
2 


160 
128 






2 
2i 

2i 


80 
66 
60 




2f 

3 


48 
40 














Cut spikes . . • • 


3 

3i 
4 
4i 

5 


29 
21 
15 
13 

lO 




5i 

7 

8 


8 









7 
6 






li 









HUMAN FOODS. 165 



XII. HUMAN FOODS. 

COMPOSITION OP HUMAN FOOD 3IATERIAIiS.* 

(Atwater.) 

Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, pota- 
toes, wheat, etc., consist of — 

Refuse. — As the bones of meat and fish, shells of shellfish, 
skin of potatoes, bran of wheat, etc. 

Edible Portion. — As the flesh of meat and fish, the white 
and yolk of eggs, wheat flour, etc. The edible portion con- 
sists of water and nutritive ingredients or nutrients. 

The principal kinds of nutritive ingredients are protein, 
fats, carbohydrates, and mineral matters. 

The water, refuse, and salt of salted meat and fish are 
called non-nutrients. In comparing the values of different 
food materials for nourishment they are left out of account. 
Classes of Nutrients. — The following are familiar examples 
of compounds of each of the four principal classes of nutri- 
ents 

{Albuminoids, e.g., albumen (white of 
I eggs); casein (curd)of milk; myosin, 
j the basis of muscle (lean meat) ; 
Proteids. \ gluten of wheat, etc. 

Gelatinoids, e.g., collagen of tendons; 
ossein of bones; which yield gelatin 
Protein. \ y or glue, etc. 

Meats and fish contain very small quantities of 
so-called 'extractives." They include kreatin 
and allied compounds, and are the chief ingre- 
dients of beef-tea and meat-extract. They 
contain nitrogen, and hence are commonly 
classed with protein. 
Fats, e.g., fat of meat ; fat (butter) of milk ; olive-oil ; oil 

of corn, wheat, etc. 
Carbohydrates, e.g., sugar, starch, cellulose (woody fiber), 
etc. 

* Extracts from " Foods, Nutritive Value and Cost " (Farmers'' Bulletin 
No. 23), and " Food and Diet " (U. S. Dapt. of Agriculture Year book, 1894). 



166 AaRiCULTURl!. 

Mineral matters, e.g., phosphate of lime, sodium chlorid 

(common salt), etc. 

The Fuel Value of Food. — Heat and muscular power are 
forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as 
the food is consumed in the body. It is measured in the 
laboratory by means of an apparatus called the calorimeter. 
The unit commonly used is the calorie, the amount of heat 
which would raise the temperature of a pound of water 
four degrees Fahrenheit. 

Taking ordinary food materials as they come, the follow- 
ing general estimate has been made for the average amount 
of heat and energy in i pound of each of the classes of 
nutrients: 

Calories. 

In I pound of protein i,86o 

In I pound of fats 4,220 

In I pound of carbohydrates 1,860 

In other words, when we compare the nutrients in re- 
spect to their fuel values, their capacities for yielding heat 
and mechanical power, a pound of protein of lean meat or 
albumen of egg is just about equivalent to a pound of 
sugar or starch, and a little over two pounds of either 
would be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or 
butter or the body fat. 

Ways in which Food is Used in the Body. — Food supplies 
the wants of the body in several ways. It either — 

Is used to form the tissues and fluids of the body; 

Is used to repair the wastes of tissues; 

Is stored in the body for future consumption; 

Is consumed as fuel, its potential energy being trans- 
formed into heat or muscular energy, or other forms of 
energy required by the body; or. 

In being consumed protects tissues or other food from 
consumption. 

Uses of the Different Classes of Nutrients. — Protein forms 
tissue (muscle, tendon, etc., and fat) and serves as fuel. 

Fats form fatty tissue (not muscle, etc.) and serve as fuel. 

Carbohydrates are transformed into fat and serve as fuel. 



HUMAN FOODS. IGt 

All nutrients yield energy in form of heat and muscular 
strength. 

In being themselves burned to yield energy the nutrients 
protect each other from being consumed. The protein and 
fats of body tissue are used like those of food. An impor- 
tant use of the carbohydrates and fats is to protect protein 
(muscle, etc.) from consumption. 

Definition of Food and Food Economy. — The views thus 
presented lead to the following definitions: (i) Food is 
that which, taken into the body, builds tissues or yields 
energy; (2) the most healthful food is that which is best 
fitted to the wants of the user; (3) the cheapest food is that 
which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment at the 
least cost; (4) the best food is that which is both most 
healthful and cheapest. 

We have, then, to consider the kinds and amounts of 
nutrients in different food materials, their digestibility, and 
the kinds and amounts needed for nourishment by people 
doing different kinds of work. 

In general, the animal foods have the most of protein 
and fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in the carbo- 
hydrates, starch, and sugar. The lean meats and fish 
abound in protein. Cheese has so large a quantity of 
protein because it contains the casein of the milk. Among 
the vegetable foods, beans and peas have a high proportion 
of protein. The proportion in oatmeal is also large. In 
wheat it is moderate, and in corn meal it is rather small. 
The materials with the highest fuel value are those with 
the most fat, because the fuel value of the fat is, weight 
for weight, two and one-fourth times as great as that of 
either sugar, starch, or protein. Hence fat pork and butter 
lead the other materials in fuel value. The fat meats in 
general stand high in this respect. So also do the grains, 
flour, and meal, as they have large quantities of carbo- 
hydrates. Potatoes are quite low in the list in respect to 
fuel value as well as protein, principally because they are 
three-fourths water. For the same reason, milk, which is 
seven-eighths water, ranks low in respect to both protein 
and fuel value. 



168 



AGRICULTURE. 



Dietaries and Dietary Standards, — As the outcome of 
a great deal of observation and experiment, nearly all in" 
Europe, standards have been proposed for the amounts 
of nutrients and energy in the daily food required by 
different classes of people. Those of Prof. Volt, of Munich, 
Germany, are most commonly accepted by specialists in 
Europe. Voit's standard for a laboring man at moderately 
hard muscular work calls for about 0.25 pound of protein 
and quantities of carbohydrates and fats sufficient, with 
the protein, to yield 3050 calories of energy. Taking into 
account the more active life in the United States, and the 
fact that well nourished people of the working classes here 
eat more and do more work than in Europe, and in the 
belief that ample nourishment is necessary for doing the 
most and the best work, I have ventured to suggest a 
standard with 0.28 pound of protein and 3500 calories of 
energy for the man at moderate muscular work. (For list 
of dietary standards, see p. 175.) 

Calculation of Daily Dietaries. — Due regard for health, 
strength, and purse requires that food shall supply enough 
protein to build tissue and enough fats and carbohydrates 
for fuel, and that it shall not be needlessly expensive. 

On the basis of the standards for dietaries given on 
page 175, various combinations of food materials for daily 
dietaries may be made by calculations from the table, 
showing percentages of nutrients, etc., in food materials 
(p. 169). Thus if a dietary for a man at moderately hard 
muscular work is to be made up of round beefsteak, butter, 
potatoes, and bread, it may be calculated as follows: 







Protein. 


Calories. 






Pounds. 
.18 
.01 
.019 
.088 


855 
3.615 


Butter 


I pound contains 






Wheat bread 












.14 

.02 
.12 


^11 

320 
1,760 


Butter.... 


3 ounces contain 


Wheat bread 


22 ounces contain 




Total 






.28 
.28 


3.455 
3iSoo 




Standard for man at mod- 
erate muscular work 



HUMAN FOODS. 



169 



PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS, WATER, AND 
REFUSE IN SPECIMENS OF FOOD MATERIALS. 

(Atwater.) 



Food Materials. 



Animal Foods, as Purchased. 
Beef: Neck 

Shoulder 

Chuck rib 

Rib 

Sirloin 

Round steak 

Side without kidney fat 

Rump, corned . 

Flank, corned 

Veal: Shoulder 

Mutton: Shoulder 

Le? 

Loin 

Side, without kidney fat. 
Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh 

Ham, salted, smoked 

Chicken 

Turkey 

Eggs, in shell 

Fish, "" 



Flounder, whole. 
Bluefish, dressed. 
Codfish, dressed 

Shad, whole 

Mackerel, whole. 
Halibut, dressed. 
Salmon, whole.. . 

Salt codfish 

Smoked herring. 

Salt mackerel 

Canned salmon. . 

Lobsters 

Oysters 



Animal Foods ^ Edible Portion. 
Beef: Neck 

Shoulder 

Chuck rib 

Rib 

Sirloin 

Round 

Side, without kidney fat. . . 

Rump, corned 

Flank, " 

Veal: Shoulder 

Mutton: Shoulder 

Leg. 



Loin. 



en u 

O .. 



20. 
12.6 
14.6 
21.0 
19-5 

7.8 
19.2 
5-0 

12. 1 
17.9 
16.3 
18. 1 
15.8 

'^■^ 
14.0 

II. 4 



32-4 
13-7 
66.8 
48.6 
29.9 
50.1 
44.8 
17.7 
35-3 
42.1 
50.9 
40.4 
4.9 
62.1 
82.3 



Edible Portion. 



% 
49.6 
55.8 
49-5 
38.2 

48.3 
60.9 

44-3 

70.8 

43-7 

56.7 

49.0 

50.6 

41-5 

44.2 

43-0 

36.8 

44.6 

44-7 

63 

27 

43 

58.5 

35 

40.4 

61.9 

40.6 

40.5 

19. 

28. 

59-3 

31 

15-4 



62.0 

63-9 
58.0 
48.1 
60.0 
68.2 
54-8 
58.1 
49.8 
68.8 
58.6 
61.8 
49-3 



Nutrients. 



50-7 



% 
IS. 6 
17.0 
15-0 
12.2 
15-0 
18.0 
13-9 
16.7 
12.4 
t6.6 

^5 

15.0 

12.6 

15.0 

13-6 



^5-1 

16. 

12. 

5- 

9- 
10.6 

9.2 
10. o 
15 
14 

16.0 
20.2 
14.7 
19-3 

5-5 



:9-5 17-5 

19.5 15.6 

7-6 23.5 

. 5-4 35-6 

o 18.5 20. 5 

20.5 10. 

7.2 27 

3.3 26.6 

33-0 
2 20.2 

\.^ 22.4 



9 ^ 



51 

29.2 

7-9 
18.8 
15-6 
29-5 
23-7 
28.0 
34-6 

1.2 

5-9 
10.2 

0.3 
0.6 



IS 

15-3 
0.7 
0.2 



[9.0 
5 035.0 






0.6 






0.9 
0.8 
0.7 
0.8 

I.O 

0.8 
2.4 

2.6 

0.9 
0.8 
0.7 
0.6 
0.8 
0.8 
2.4 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 
0.5 
0.7 
0.8 
0.7 
0.7 
0.9 

1.0 

1.2 
0.9 

1-7 

1.2 

0.6 
0.4 



1.0 
0.9 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2.0 

30 
1.2 
0.9 
0.9 
0.7 



170 



Agriculture. 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIAI.S. 

Nutritive ingredients, refuse, and fuel value. 



Nutrients. 



Non-nutrients. 



Fuel value. 



Protein Fats. Carbo- Blineral Water. Refuse. Calories, 

hydrates, matters 

Protein compounds, e. g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) of milk, and 
gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc. 
Fats, e. g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, ) serve as fuel to yield heat 
Carbohydrates, e. g., starch and sug-ar, 1 and muscular power. 



Nutnenta,etc.,p.ct. JQ 


20 


30 


40 50 60 


70 


80 


90 


fOo 


Fuel value of \lh. 400 


800 


\m) 


1600 2000 2400 


2800 


3200 


3600 


4000 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 






Codfish, salt 
Oysters 



fm:^- 



^^w^^ 




Without bone. 



HU.MAK I'OODS. 



ITl 



PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS, ETC., IN FOOD 

MATEHIALiS—Coniznuecf. 



Food Materials. 



Aniinal Foods, Edible Portion. 
Mutton: Side, without kidney fat 
Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh 

Ham, salted, smoked 

Fat, salted 

Sausage: Pork 

Bologna 

Chicken 

Turkey 

Eerffs 

Milk 

Butter 

Oleomargarine 

Cheese: Full-cream 

Skim-milk . . 

Fish: Flounder 

Haddock 

Codfish 

Shad 

Mackerel 

Halibut 

Salmon 

Salt cod 

Herring, salt 

Mackerel, salt 

Oysters 

Vegetable Foods. 

Wheat flour 

Graham flour (wheat) 

Rye flour 

Buckwheat flour 

Oatmeal 

Cornmeal 

Rice 

Peas 

Beans , 

Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Onions 

String beans 

Green peas.... 

Green corn 

Tomatoes 

Cabbage 

Apples 

Sugar, granulated 

Molasses 

White bread (wheat) 

Boston crackers 







Edible Portion. 




5 


Nutrients. 


„• 


c 




^^' 


rtJ2 


^ 


I 





^ 


13 b 


SIS 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


53-S 


46. s 


16.9 


28.7 




0.9 


SO- 3 


49 


7 


16.0 


32.8 




0.9 


41-5 


58 


s 


ib.7 


39.1 




2.7 


12. 1 


87 


9 


0.9 


82.8 




4.2 


41.2 


S8 


8 


13.8 


42.8 




2.2 


62.4 


37 


6 


18.8 


15.8 




30 


72.2 


27 


8 


24.4 


2.0 




1-4 


66.2 


.•?3 


8 


23-9 


8.7 




1.2 


73-a 


26 


2 


14.9 


10.5 




0.8 


87.0 


13 





3-b 


4.0 


4-7 


0.7 


10.5 


8q 





I.O 


8s. 


0.5 


3-0 


II. 


8q 


5 


0.6 


85.0 


0.4 


3-0 


30.2 


6q 


8 


28.3 


3S.,S 


1.8 


4.2 


41-3 


.sa 


7 


38.4 


6.8 


8.9 


4.b 


84.2 




8 


13.8 


0.7 




1-3 


81.7 


18 


3 


16.8 


0.3 




1.2 


82.6 


17 


4 


1-.8 


0.4 




1.2 


70.6 


29 


4 


18.6 


95 




1-3 


73-4 


26 


6 


18.2 


71 




1-3 


75-4 


24 


b 


18.3 


.■5-2 




I.I 


63.6 


36 


4 


21.6 


^3-4 




1.4 


34-6 
43-4 
87.1 






21.4 


0.3 




1.6 






36.4 
6.0 


1.2 




15 








12 


9 


3-7 


2.0 


12 5 


87.5 


II. 


I.I 


74-9 


0-5 


131 


86.9 


II. 7 


1-7 


71.7 


1.8 


I3-I 


86.9 


6.7 


0.8 


78.7 


0.7 


14.6 


85.4 


6.9 


1.4 


76.1 


1.0 


7.6 


92.4 


15 I 


7-1 


68.2 


2.0 


15.0 


85.0 


9.2 


3.8 


70.6 


1-4 


12.4 


87.6 


7-4 


04 


79-4 


0.4 


12.3 


87.7 


2b. 7 


1-7 


5b. 4 


29 


12.6 


87.4 


23.1 


2.0 


59-2 


31 


7«-Q 


21. 1 


2.1 


o.i 


17.9 


1.0 


71. 1 


28.9 


1-5 


04 


26.0 


1.0 


8q.4 


10.6 


1.2 


0.2 


8.2 


1.0 


88.6 


II. 4 


I.I 


0.4 


8.9 


1.0 


87.6 


12.4 


1-4 


0.3 


10. 1 


0.6 


87.2 


12.8 


2.2 


0.4 


9.4 


0.8 


78.1 


21.9 


4-4 


0.6 


16.0 


0.9 


81.3 


18.7 


2.8 


1. 1 


13.2 


0.6 


q6.o 


4.0 


0.8 


0.4 


2.5 


0.3 


QI.9 


8.1 


2.1 


0.3 


5-5 


I.I 


83.2 


16.8 


0.2 


0.4 


iS-9 


0.3 




98.0 
75-4 
67.7 






97.8 
73-1 
.56.3 




24.6 
323 






2.3 
0.9 


8.8 


1.7 


8.3 


91 


7 


10.7 


9-9 


68.7 


2.4 



172 



AGRICULTURE. 



PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD. 

Amounts of actually nutritive ingredients obtained in different 
food materials for 25 cents. 
[Amount of nutrients in pounds. Fuel value in calories.] 
Protein. Fats. Carbohydrates. Fuel value. 



m 



Weights of nutrients and calories of 
energy in 25 cents worth. 




'Voit 



iAtwater. 



HUMAX rOODS. 



173 



AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR 
TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD ^lATERIALS 
AT ORDINARY PRICES. (Atwater.) 



Food Materials as Furnished. 



Meats, etc. 

Beef: Neck , 

Chuck-ribs , 

Ribs 

Shoulder 

Sirloin 

Rump 

Round, first cut 

Round, second cut.. 
Flank, corned 

Corned and canned. 

Liver 

Mutton: Shoulder 

Leg 

Loin 

Pork: Rib roast 

Smoked ham, whole 

Salt fat pork 

Pork sausage 

Poultry, etc. : Chicken 

Turkey 

Fisk, etc. 
Mackerel, whole 

Bluefish, dressed 

Cod, dressed 






1x8 

) lO 



( IS 

I 25 
j 20 

»20 

)i6 



/ 6 



Twenty-five Cents will pay for 






3-13 
4.17 
1.56 
2.08 
1. 14 

1-39 
1.79 
2.50 
1. 14 
1-39 
1-39 
1.67 

1-39 
1.67 
2.50 

1.67 
2.50 
1-39 
1.79 

313 
1-25 
1.67 
1. 00 
1-25 
1. 00 
1.25 
2.08 
2.50 
1.56 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1. 14 
1.56 
1.09 
1.38 

1-39 
1.67 
2.50 
1.67 
2.50 
2.50 

3-13 
4.17 



Nutrients. 



lbs. 

95 
27 
56 
75 
47 
57 
57 
79 
37 
45 
63 
76 
44 
52 
52 
65 
77 
II 
66 
85 
96 
41 
58 
31 
39 
43 
53 
88 
06 
86 
08 
17 
03 
98 
22 
32 
45 
37 
47 



lbs. 



lbs 



cals. 

2765 
3655 
1735 
2350 
1610 
i960 
1615 
223s 
1120 
1360 
2170 
2620 
1180 
1445 
1285 
1580 
2460 
3655 
1700 
2200 
2095 
1265 

1775 
955 
1195 
1465 
1840 
2970 
5885 
2915 
3615 
5860 
7295 
3465 
4295 
605 
835 
865 



51S 
610 
930 
340 
550 
505 
655 
860 



174 



AGRICULTURE. 



AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR 
TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD MATERIALS 

AT ORDINARY PRICES. -Coniznued. 



Food Materials as Furnished. 



Fz'sk, etc. 
Halibut steaks 

Canned salmon 

Oysters, 50 cts. per quart 

35 " 

Lobster, whole 

" canned 

Eggs and Dairy Products. 
Eggs, 35 cts. per doz 

" 25 " " 

" 15 " " 

Milk, 8 cts. per quart 

" 6 " " 

„" 4 " " 

Butter 

Cheese, full cream 

Vegetable Foods. 
Potatoes, $1.00 per bushel.. . 
.80 " 
" .50 
Sweet potatoes 

Beets 

Turnips 

Sugar 

Dried beans 

Maize " corn" meal 

Oatmeal 

Wheat flour 

Wheat bread 

Crackers. 



CH 



cts. 

!20 
16 



25 

17-5 



ji.7 
\ 1-25 
I 0.85 
i 5 
\ 3 



Twenty-five Cents will pay for 



o rt 



lbs. 

1-25 

1.56 

I 25 

1. 00 
1-43 
2.08 
2 .50 
1.25 



1. 00 
1-37 
2.27 
6.25 

8.33 
12.50 

•7 
1. 00 



•38 



14.70 

20. 00 

29.40 

5.00 

8.33 

12.50 

25.00 

12.50 

25.00 

5.00 

4.17 

5.00 

6.25 

8.33 

25.00 

5.00 

6.25 

7.14 

8-33 

3-57 

5.00 

2.08 



Nutrients. 



lbs. lbs. 

,26! .19 
32 



• 23 

•32 

•53 

.81 

1.08 

1.63 

.64 

.90 

.96 

1-45 



•31 
.42 
.62 
.14 
.24 
.14 
.29 

•13 
.27 
4.90 
3-64 
4-37 
5-46 
7.08 
21.25 
4.61 
5-47 
6.25 
7.29 
2.42 
3.38 
1. 91 



lbs 

.06 
.07 



•03 



lbs. 





■• 




04 
05 
















29 
39 
59 


4 
2 
2 

3 
5 
17 

3 
4 
5 
6 
2 
2 
I 
2 


01 
02 
04 

26 
36 
53 
13 
22 
II 
22 
10 
21 
8y 

70 
88 
65 
42 
68 
35 
24 
01 
82 
47 
.21 



o c c 



cals. 

605 

■;4o 
1310 
230 
345 
345 
415 
470 

645 
910 
1490 
2020 
2675 
4065 
2550 
3635 
3850 
4210 

580 

790 

1225 

640 

430 

240 

485 

225 

490 

9095 

6760 

8065 

IlIIO 

13720 

41115 
9255 

10285 
"755 
13695 
4570 
6445 
3970 
5930 



HUMAN FOODS. 



175 



DIETARY STANDARDS. (Jaffa.) 



1. Children, 1-2 years (average) 

2. Children, 2-6 years (average) 

3. Children, 6-15 years (average) 

'4. Adult in full health— Playfair 

5. Active laborers — Playfair 

6. Man at moderate work — Voit 

7. Man at hard work — Voit 

8. Man with little physical exercise— 

Atwater 

9. Man with light muscular work— At- 

water 

10. Man with moderate work — Atwater.. 

11. Man with active work — Atwater 

12. Man with hard work— Atwater 

13. Subsistence diet— Playfair. 

14. Average of 7 dietaries of professional 

men, Europe . . 

15. Average of 5 dietaries of professional 

men, United States 



■5^ 


a 




> 05 ^ 




i 




3 <U 1- 


.06 


.08 


.16 


765 


.13 


.09 


• 44 


1420 


.16 


.10 


• 71 


2040 


.26 


.11 


1.17 


3140 


•34 


.16 


1.25 


3630 


.26 


.12 


1. 10 


3055 


•32 


.22 


.99 


3370 


.20 


.20 


.66 


2450 


.22 


.22 


•77 


2800 


.28 


.28 


•99 


3520 


•33 


•33 


1. 10 


4060 


• >9 


•55 


1.43 


5700 


■13 


•03 


■75 


1760 


•25 


.22 


•63 


2670 


.27 


•34 


1.08 


3Q25 



3Si 



5^7 
5-8 
5-6 
6.9 
6.3 



SUMMARY OF AMERICAN DIETARY STUDIES. 

(Bryant.) 





Av.Food Consump.p.Man p.Day 


Families Studied. 


ui 


c g 


1 








,a 


'v OS 


0! 


2 E 










■e-^ 5 

3.C-0 










^^ 


Iss 


Average of 2 laborers' families in com- 












fortable circumstances 


19 




157 


534 


4045 


Average of 15 college clubs in Me., Conn., 








107 


148 


459 


3690 


Average of 10 farmers' families in Vt., 








97 


130 


467 


3515 


Average of 14 mechanics' families in 






19* 

9 


103 

67 


150 
134 


402 
453 


3465 

3375 


Average of 12 negro families in Ala.t 


Average of 5 French-Canadian families 












in Chicago, 111. t 


22 


118 


is8 


345 


3365 


Average of 14 professional men's families 












in Conn, Pa.. Ind., and 111 


28t 


104 


125 


423 


3325 


Average of 4 families of Russian Jews in 












Chicago, 111.* 


19 


120 


lOI 


406 


3095 


Av. of 4 Italian families in Chicago. 111.$. 


16 


103 


III 


391 


3060 


Average of 11 poor families in N. Y. City 


15 


93 


95 


407 


2915 


Av. of 12 laborers' families in N. Y. City 


J9 


lOI 


116 


344 


2905 


Average of 8 Bohemian families in Chi- 












cago, Ill.t 


12 


1^5 


JOI 


360 


28S5 


Average of 2 laborers' families in Pitts- 












burg, Pa., very poor... 


Tl 


8'.. 


95 


.308 


2485 



* Average of o studies. t Average of 5 studies. 

X Food purchased; in the other averages the food actually eaten is given, 



176 AGRICULTURE. 

DIAGRAMS OF CUTS OF MEAT. 




Diagram I. A Good Steer's Carcass, as Cut Up and Priced in the 

Eastern Market. 



A good 1200-pound Steer will dress about 800 pounds of 
beef cut up as above — 715 pounds salable cuts, with 85 
pounds of fat, bone, and waste. 

The diagram illustrates what the breeder and feeder 
should aim to produce in the conformation of the beef- and 
mutton-producing animal, so that the highest possible per- 
centage of the carcass will be cuts of the high-priced class, 
thereby giving the best possible return for food consumed, 
(McKerrow.) 

The methods of dividing up the carcasses of slaughtered 
animals into parts, and the terms used for the "cuts," as 
these parts are commonly called, vary considerably in dif- 
ferent localities. The accompanying diagrams will make 
clear the terms used in the table Composition of Human 
Foods (pp. 169-71). 



HU3rAN FOODS. 



177 




IV. Diapram of Cuts of Pork.* 



* U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 



178 



AGRICULTURE. 



LIVE WEIGHT AND DRESSED A\ EIGHT OF STEERS 
OF DIFFERENT BREEDS AND AGES. (Henry.) 



{Smithjiehi S/tow, 1888-95.) 













Live 1 








No. of 




Aver. 


Weight 




Breed and Age. 


Ani- 
mals. 


Aver. 
Age. 


Daily 
Gains. 


at 1 
Slaugli-' 


Dressed 
Weight. 












lenng. 










Days 


Lbs, 


Lbs. 


I'er Ct. 


Shorthorn, 


1 year olds.. 


5 


642 


2. II 


13.0 


66.1 




2 " " . 


18 


963 


1.92 


1842 


f'7.5 




3 " " •• 


16 




1.72 


2251 


69.4 


Hereford, 


I " " .. 


16 


663 


1.97 


1308 


65-1 




2 " " .. 


13 


1020 


1.78 


18.7 


67.2 




3 " " • 


8 


1349 


1.64 


2218 


69.2 


Devon, 


I " " . 


13 


634 


1-75 


1112 


66.0 




2 " " .. 


19 


1045 


1.51 


1583 


67.7 






16 


1311 


1-37 


1796 


67 3 


Aberdeen Angus 


I " " . 


26 


668 


2.04 


1366 


65.4 




2 " " . 


21 


1008 


t 74 


1765 


66.7 




3 " 


2 


1346 


1-59 


2138 


674 


Sussex, 




17 


677 


2.15 


1452 


65.4 




2 •' " . 


18 


989 


1.86 


1837 


68.2 




3 " " • 


12 


1285 


1. 61 


2C64 


68. 


Red Poll, 


2 " " . 


12 


1002 


t.64 


1631 


65.7 




3 " " • 


6 


1362 


1.49 


2022 


65.8 


Galloway, 


2 " " . 


7 


1027 


1.64 


1688 


64.5 




3 " 


4 


1344 


1.47 


1969 


64.8 



PROPORTION OF BEEF TO THE LIVE AVEIGHT 
OF CATTLE. (McConnell.) 





Live Weight, 

Pounds 
Avoirdupois. 


Pe 


r Cent of Beef. 




Class L 


Class H. 


Class HI 


Heifers 


Under 2520 
" 2520 
1680-2100 
1400-16S0 
1400-1680 
1260 -1400 
I 260-1 400 
1 1 20- 1260 
I 120-1 260 
980-1120 

Under 980 


70.72 
69.71 
66.68 
66.68 
62.65 
62 65 
57 61 
57-6i 
53-56 
53.56 


66.69 
66.69 

63.65 
60.62 
60.62 
54 • 59 
54-59 
50.53 
50.53 




Steers. . 

Steers 

>ieifers 


63.66' 
6:5.66 


Steers 

Heifers 


S7-62 
57.62 
5' .56 
5'-£6 
48.50 
48.50 
45-47 


Heifers 


Steers 

Heifers 


Heifers 









HUMAN FOODS. 



179 



COMPARATIVE RESULTS OBTAINED WITH 

FATTENING ANIMALS. (Lawes and Gilbert.) 

(a) Per lOO lbs. live weight per week. 





Received by Animal. 


Results Produced. 




Total 

Dry 

Food. 


Digestible 
Organic 
Matter. 


Food Con- 
sumed for 
Heat and 
Work. 


Dry 

Manure 

Produced. 


Increase 
in Live 
Weight. 


Oxen 

Sheep 

Pijrs 


lbs. 
12.5 
16.0 
27.0 


lbs. 

8.9 

12.3 

22.0 


lbs. 
6.86 
9.06 
12.58 


lbs. 
4.56 
5.10 
4 5^ 


lbs. 
6-43 







{J)) In relation to food constimed. 






Increase in Live 
Weight. 


On 100 lbs. of Dry Food. 




Per 100 

lbs. Dry 

Food. 


Per 100 lbs. 
Digested 
Organic 

Matter. 


Consumed 

for Heat 

and Work. 


Dry 

Manure 
Produced. 


Dry 
Increase 
Yielded. 


Oxen 

Sheep 

Pigs 


lbs. 
9.0 
II .0 

23.8 


lbs. 
12.7 , 

14-3 
29.2 


lbs. 

54-9 
56.6 
46.6 


lbs. 
36.5 
31-9 
16.7 


lbs. 
6.2 
8.0 
17.6 



LIVE WEIGHT AND GAINS MADE BY SWINE. 

(Henry and Sanborn.) 















Per 100 Lbs. Live 




No. of 


Aver. 




Daily 


Feed 


Weight. 


Live 


Ani- 




Feed 


per Lb. 




Weight. 


mals. 


Weight. 


Eaten. 


Made. 


of 
Gain. 


Feed 
Eaten. 


Gain 
Made. 


Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Under 50 


59 


37-7 


2.31 


.701 


3-3° 


6.13 


1.86 


50-100 


91 


75-5 


3-33 


.900 


3.70 


4.41 


1. 19 


100-150 


H9 


126. 1 


4.29 


1 .029 


4.17 


340 


.82 


150-200 


1.38 


176.2 


6.45 


1. 123 


5-75 


3.66 


.64 


200-250 


65 


214.1 


6.89 


1.287 


5-35 


3.22 


.60 


250-300 


41 


266.4 


7-64 


1-457 


5.24 


2.87 


•55 


300-350 


12 

525 


3330 


6.02 


I -.352 


4-45 


1.81 


.41 



180 



AGRICULTURE. 



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HUMAN FOODS. 



181 



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1855 



AGRICULTURE. 



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P, J g CL, t/) CA 1/5 



PART II. DAIRYING. 



I. DAIRY COWS. 

ON THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 
DIFFERENT BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE. 

I. Jersey Cattle. 

The origin of the Jersey cattle, like many of our other 
improved breeds of live-stock, is not known with cer- 
tainty. The theory is that they descend from cattle 
brought from the Scandinavian countries to Normandy, 
France, during the tenth century or before, whence they 
were introduced into the Island of Jersey, off the French 
coast. The breed has been kept pure on this little island 
for a longer period than any other English breeds, as a 
result of the enactment in 1789 of a law forbidding im- 
portations of foreign cattle into the island. According to 
Flint, Jerseys were first imported into this country about 
1838, but heavy importations did not begin until after 1850. 

The following is a description of typical Jersey cows: 
Head fine and tapering; cheek small; throat clean; the 
muzzle fine and encircled with a slight stripe; the nostril 
high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, not very 
thick at the base, tapering, and tipped with black; ears 
small and thin, deep orange color inside; eyes full and 
placid; neck straight and fine; chest broad and deep; bar- 
rel hooped, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back straight 
from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip 
to the setting on of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with 
the back, and hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light 
color, and mellow, covered with fine soft hair; forelegs 
short, straight and fine below the knee, arm swelling and 
full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs 



184 DAIHYtNG. 

short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine, 
squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; 
udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up 
behind; teats of medium size, squarely placed and wide 
apart, milk veins very prominent; color is generally 
cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less white. 

The Jerseys are generally considered a butter-producing 
1 reed, and justly so. The milk produced is as a rule richer 
' n fat and solids than that of any other breed, but the 
([uantity yielded, on the other hand, is apt to be lower. 
Milk from good Jersey cows often contains over six per 
cent of fat, the average being about five per cent. Produc- 
tion of rich milk has been the primary aim of Jersey 
breeders; in 1881 the secretary of the American Jersey 
Cattle Club wrote: " The sole office of the Jersey cow is 
to produce the largest possible amount of rich, highly 
colored cream from a given amount of food. Everything 
else in connection with the breeding of the race is, or 
should be, incidental." 

The highest yields of butter-fat or butter, in case of 
Jersey cows as well as other dairy breeds, are not, how- 
ever, apt to come from cows producing exceptionally rich 
milk, but rather from such producing an exceptionally 
large quantity of good milk; generally speaking, an ex- 
traordinarily high fat-content is accompanied by a small 
milk yield. 

Typical Jerseys generally have a high-strung, nervous 
temperament, and in order to do their best must receive 
good care; they cannot be abused as to feed or treatment 
without injury; for this reason they will only prove a suc- 
cess in the hands of intelligent feeders who care for and 
take an interest in their stock. The dairy type predomi- 
nates, viz.: a wedge-shaped, deep-chested body, with 
good digestive organs, large full udders, well-developed 
milk-veins, and a soft, mellow skin. The cows are gentle 
and docile, while the bulls have the reputation of being 
hard to handle, and often ugly and dangerous after a couple 
of years' service. 

The maximum yields of milk and butter produced by 
Jersey cows are given on page 189, the table giving the 



DAIRY COWS. 185 

official records. In the breed-tests conducted by the ex- 
periment stations in Maine, New Jersey, and New York 
(Geneva), the Jerseys have ranked among the first, but 
have seldom been the foremost. As the average of all tests 
of dairy breeds up to date, we notice that the Jerseys rank 
after the Shorthorns and the Guernseys in total yield of 
fat during a full period of lactation, and after Guernseys in 
the cost of producing one pound of fat; they rank first as to 
richness of milk produced. In the English milking trials 
conducted by the British Dairy Farmers' Association, the 
Shorthorn cows have generally led the Jerseys in the 
total quantities of fat produced per day, and other breeds 
have also, on the average, given better results than these. 
The Jerseys came out victorious in the breed-tests con- 
ducted at the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893; they 
produced more milk, butter-fat, butter, and cheese, and 
gave a higher net gain than either of the two other breeds 
competing (Guernsey and Shorthorn); the Guernseys, on 
the other hand, led as regards the cost of the food con- 
sumed. In the breed-test No. i ("the fifteen-day cheese 
test") Ida Marigold, 32615, produced the largest quantity 
of cheese, viz.: 70.92 lbs., and Merry Maiden, 69449, the 
largest quantity of butter-fat, viz.: 30.73 lbs. In breed- 
test No. 2 ("the ninety-day test") Brown Bessie, 74997, 
produced 178.12 lbs. of butter-fat. Merry Maiden and Ida 
Marigold following, with 164.81 lbs. and 164.28 lbs., re- 
spectively. 

The American Jersey Cattle Club was organized in July 
1S68; the Herd Register of the club, the first volume of 
which was published in 1871, has been issued in fifty 
volumes up to date, including in all 52,000 bulls and 134,000 
cows. Butter Tests of Registered Jersey Cows gives all tests 
of registered Jerseys where the yield of butter for seven 
consecutive days was 14 lbs. or more; the latest volume 
published is Vol. II., New Series. 

The present secretary of the American Jersey Cattle 
Club is J. J. Hemingway, No. 8 W. Seventeenth St., New 
York City. 



186 DAIRYIKG. 



il. Guernsey Cattle. 

By Prof. W. H. Caldwell, Peterboro, N. H., Sec'y Am. Guernsey Cattle 
Club. 

The Guernsey breed takes its name from the Island of 
Guernsey, one of the Channel, or sometimes termed Alder- 
ney, Islands. The origin of the Channel Island cattle, 
while somewhat involved in controversy, is generally be- 
lieved to have come from stock originally from the French 
provinces of Normandy and Brittany, and that the founda- 
tion for the Guernseys was laid by crossing the Normandy 
bull on the Brittany cow. It is very interesting to turn to 
the Island of Guernsey, cut off as it is from the main land 
by the little strip of sea, and protected on all sides by 
a rough, rocky coast, and note the characteristics which 
we find there that have played so important a part in 
moulding the character of the Guernsey of to-day. There 
the shrewd, careful, sturdy people have labored many years 
to produce a cow that should excel in butter production. 
Their labors have been rewarded in the Guernsey, which is 
noted the world over for producing butter of the highest 
natural color and with the least outlay for cost of feed. 
Fate might have been different with these people but for 
their insular situation, pride of self-government, habits and 
customs, which led them to zealously fight invasions, and 
even as early as 1789 to take measures against the fraud- 
ulent importation of stock. In 1826 came more stringent 
laws, that prohibited importation to the island except for 
slaughter. It thus isolated the islanders and their cows 
from the cattle kingdom. 

The striking appearance of the Guernsey is at once seen 
in its rich yellow skin, which has always been noted as the 
characteristic of a good butter-cow. In appearance they are 
rangy, deep, business-looking animals, with a particularly 
quiet, gentle, tractable temperament, free from nervous- 
ness. The prevailing color is a delicate shade of fawn with 
white markings, and cream-colored riose; and their most 
remarkable characteristic of richness is apparent in the 



DAIRY COWS. 187 

golden color around the eye, on the udder and teats, at 
base of horn, and at end of the bone of tail. 

Until recently Guernseys in America were kept chiefly 
for family use. They were introduced into private dairies 
around Philadelphia as early as 1840, and since that time no 
other breeds have been permitted to replace them. The 
gentlemen who first introduced Guernseys had no motive 
to advertise them. They esteemed their golden-colored 
products so highly that they were kept for the supplying 
of families with the best milk and butter that could be pro- 
duced. About 1865 a few Guernseys were introduced by 
the importers, which laid the foundation of some of our 
herds of to-day. A few years later the Massachusetts So- 
ciety for the Promotion of Agriculture, realizing the great 
promise of the breed, imported some and distributed them 
at a public sale to dairymen in the State. A few years 
later a number of Connecticut farmers joined together and 
sent a man to the island to bring over a lot. It soon became 
obvious to these gentlemen that some organization was 
necessary to preserve the purity of these cattle and to 
encourage their recognition. Accordingly on February 7, 
1877, the American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized in 
New York City. At that time there were about one hun- 
dred and fifty pure-bred Guernseys in the country, whose 
pedigrees could be traced without question to importation 
from the island. At present there are about 14,000 animals 
in the Register. In the last few years — in fact since the 
World's Fair Dairy tests in 1893, and the work at the New 
York and New Jersey Experiment Stations — great interest 
has been taken in the Guernseys. More entries and trans- 
fers have been recorded, and more members have joined 
the Club than at any similar period in its history. The 
public are just realizing the straightforward work that 
has been quietly done for the last quarter of a century, and 
find in a study of it that there are many valuable records to 
the credit of the breed. These are all the more valuable as 
the Guernsey has not been forced for high records, but 
have honestly won their way. 

The best records reported of Guernseys are those of Lily 



188 DAIRYING. 

of Alexandre, No, 1059, and Imp. Bretonne, No. 3660. Lily 
of Alexandre gave 12,855!- pounds of milk in one year ; and 
two months before calving tested 7.2 per cent of butter-fat. 
Bretonne gave in the year ending October 20, 1894, ii,2ig 
pounds of milk. Her milk was tested carefully once a 
month by taking a composite sample of eight consecutive 
milkings. The lowest test was 5.2 per cent and highest 
6.1 per cent butter- fat. Her milk yielded 6o2jV(j pounds 
of butter-fat, or equivalent to 753i^o pounds of butter con- 
taining 80 oer cent butter-fat. She is a large, well-built 
• ow. and weighed at the close of her year's work 1150 
pounds. In addition the cow Fantine 2d, No. 3730, owned 
by Mr. Chas. Solveson of Nashotah, Wis., gave in one year, 
besides dropping a fine calf and being dry four weeks, 9748 
pounds of milk, the lowest test being 5 and the highest 
5.6 per cent butter-fat, which would yield a year's record 
of 516.6 pounds butter fat or 602 pounds of butter. Mr. 
Ezra Michener of Carversville, Pa., owns the cow King's 
Myra, No. 5339, who has just completed the year's test 
under the direction of the Guernsey Breeders' Association 
and received their first prize. She is four years old, and 
gave in the year 861 r pounds of milk, which yielded 539 
pounds of butter. Nearly a hundred cows have been re- 
ported that have made a record of 14 pounds or over of 
butter a week, and several that have made exceedingly fine 
single-day tests, as one cow, Pretty Dairymaid 2d of 
Guernsey, No, 6366, who in an official test gave in three 
consecutive days 61 pounds 2 ounces, 62 pounds 12 ounces, 
and 52 pounds and 9 ounces of milk, a total of 176 pounds 
7 ounces. 

Their ability to produce butter-fat and butter at a low 
cost demands the careful attention of the dairymen. At 
the New York Experiment Station several of the dairy 
breeds are being carefully tested. The annual report of the 
director, which was recently issued, gives the result of the 
first two periods of lactation. In both instances the Guern- 
seys produced butter-fat at the least cost, as the following 
shows : 



DAIRY COWS. 189 

COST OF BUTTER-FAT PER POUND. 

ist Period. ad Period. 

Guernsey 18.4 cts. 15.6 cts. 

Jersey 20.0 " 18.5 '* 

Devon 23.0 " 19.0 " 

Ayrshire 24.3 " 24.8 '* 

Am. Holderness 26.3 " 22.8 ** 

Holstein-Friesian 26.3 " 26.4 ** 

This agrees with the work done at the New Jersey Ex- 
periment Station and with the average results of the butter 
tests at the World's Fair. 

COST PER POUND OF BUTTER PRODUCED. 

New Jersey. World's Fair. 

Guernsey 15.3 cts. 13. i cts. 

Jersey 17.9 ** 13.3 " 

Ayrshire 20.6 " .... 

Shorthorn 20.8 " 15.8 " 

Holstein 22.4 ** .... 

This shows the Guernseys to be the most economical 
producers of butter ; and such golden-yellow butter, too ! 

The American dairyman, in his endeavor to improve his 
own herd and collectively to improve the herds of his sec- 
tion, naturally takes a great deal of interest in the grade 
dairy cow. In the progressive dairy sections the influence 
v/hich pure-bred bulls exert is readily acknowledged. 
They intensify the good qualities of the breed to which 
they belong, and make such a section a desirable place for 
the seeking of good family and profitable dairy cows. The 
value of the Guernsey bull in effecting this improvement 
has been well understood for many years, and especially is 
it realized to-day in the desire to secure in the dairy cattle 
of America greater physical strength and more profitable 
butter production without reducing size or sacrificing rich- 
ness of milk production. Mr. Lewis F. Allen, in his writings 
several years ago, spoke especially of his experience with 
the Guernsey for grading. He said his experience was 
good, large-sized animals, free and persistent milkers, and 



190 DAIRYING. 

the making of the first quality butter for private family or 
hotel use. He believed that on a whole the Guernseys 
were more satisfactory for the dairy than any which in his 
forty years' experience he had ever had. His cows had 
good square udders, well set front and behind, teats of 
good size and easy to grasp. 

The Herd Register is published by the American Guern- 
sey Cattle Club, whose headquarters are at Peterboro, N. 
H. The breeders of Guernseys have always been harmoni- 
ous in letting their favorites win their way by their own 
straightforward efforts in the dairy. By addressing the 
Secretary of the Club at Peterboro, N. H., further informa* 
tion will cheerfully be furnished. 

III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. 

By S. HoxiE, Yorkville, N. ¥., Supt. Advanced Registry Holstein- 
Friesian Association of America. 

This is our American representative of the Lowland 
race, native to the low, rich lands of Belgium, Holland, 
and Northwestern Germany. Its origin is ascribed to the 
Friesians — a tribe of people mentioned by Roman historians 
before the opening of the Christian era as peaceable cattle- 
breeders dwelling on the shores of the North Sea. The 
present dairy-farmers of the provinces of North Holland 
and Friesland are the lineal descendants of those cattle- 
breeders, and they are to-day handling the same race upon 
the same lands. These farmers are among the leading 
dairymen of Europe. As evidence of this. Chambers' En- 
cyclopedia* gives the export of butter from the province of 
Friesland to England in 1874 as 266,041 cwt. The number 
of cows owned in that province in 1879 was 144,802. As- 
suming the same number in 1874, this export averages 205f 
lbs. per cow; assuming the same number of acres of grass 
lands, this export averages ii7|^ lbs. per acre. We have no 
data of the home consum.ption or of the exports to other 
countries. These combined must have been large, and, 



* Edinburgh and London edition, article '^ Friesland, 



DAIRY COWS. 191 

were they added, would doubtless much increase these 
averages. Lest some reader may assume that a part of 
this enormous export must have been oleomargarine or ar- 
tificial butter, it is well to add that no such products were 
known in Friesland at that date. 

According to U. S. Consular Reports on Cattle and Dairy 
Farming, the amount of butter imported from Holland into 
Great Britain in 1877 was 41,679,085 lbs. ; in 1884, of cheese, 
65,994.544 lbs. The import of butter for 1877 rather than 
for 1884 is quoted, because the former date was " before 
oleomargarine had become an industry in that country."* 
Netherlands, the country we call Holland, has eleven prov- 
inces of a total area of 12,597 sq. miles. The two dairy 
provinces are North Holland and Friesland with a total 
area of 2303 sq. miles. There is no question that the bulk 
if not all of these vast imports came from these two prov- 
inces. The significance of these statistics is best seen by 
a comparison. Oneida and Herkimer, two adjoining dairy 
counties in the State of New York, have about the same area 
as the two dairy provinces of Holland. The whole of the 
United States and Canada furnished Great Britain, in 1884, 
17,440,416 lbs. butter and 109,333,280 lbs. cheese. The Hol- 
stein-Friesian breed is exclusively used in North Holland 
and Friesland. With these statistics before him the reader 
may safely be left to draw his own conclusions. 

As to the characteristics of this breed the most important 
one is indicated by such statistics. To the casual observer 
the color may appear more striking. This is variegated in 
distinct markings. The American herd-books receive only 
black-and-white to entry. The European herd-books receive 
red-and-white, gray-and-white, and mouse-colored-and- 
white ; but the great bulk of their entries are black-and- 
white. The structure of the breed is also an important 
characteristic. This is best shown by measurements. The 
average measurements of full-age cows (those five years old 
and upwards) received to the fourth volume of the Holstein- 
Friesian Advanced Register were as follows : Height at 

* U. S. Consular Reports [i836]— Cattle and Dairy Farming, p. 15. 



192 DAIRYIN^G. 

shoulders, 51.8 -f inches; at hips, 53: length of body, 64.9 +; 
of rump, 21.4—; width of hips, 21.9—; at thurl, 19. 64-; 
girth at smallest circumference of chest, 75.6 -|-. These 
are fairly representative of the breed, and describe what is 
technically called the milk-and-beef form. There are ani- 
mals of the breed of other forms, but in this respect must 
be regarded as exceptional. The average weight of these 
cows was 1262 -(- lbs. Tliis is also fairly representative of 
the breed. Rapidity of growth and earliness of maturity 
are important characteristics of the breed. These may also k 
be shown by measurements. The entries in one of the '* 
European herd-books from actual measurements taken 
show that heifers reach their full height at between two 
and a half and three years old, that each year for the fol- 
lowing two years they increase one and three-fourths of an 
inch in length of body, two inches in girth of chest, and 
three-fourths of an inch in width of hips. After five years 
old no increase is shown except what may be properly 
ascribed to additions of flesh. Its calves are large at birth, 
they take on flesh rapidly, and the veal is unsurpassed in 
quality. In Holland nearly all cows are beefed at five and 
six years old. On his return from an agricultural tour in 
Europe Prof. I. P. Roberts in speaking of the quality of its 
beef said, " I ate of it for three weeks, and the English beef 
for two, and while not so fat as the Short-Horn it was to my 
taste superior." * 

Another and very important characteristic is constitu- 
tional vigor. No dairy b'-eed probably excels it in this. It 
enables the breed to resist disease, to endure climatic 
changes, and its cows to endure forcing to enormous pro- 
ductions. In the reign of Peter the Great, importations of 
this breed of cattle were made into Northern Russia, into 
the district of Kolmogory, within three and a half degrees 
of the Arctic Circle. Other importations have continued 
to the present time. All have acclimated without difficulty. 
No greater test of its vitality can well be imagined. 



* Report of Second Annual Convention, N. Y. State Dairymen's Asso- 
ciation, p. 58, 



DAIRY COWS. 193 

Crossed on the nondescript native cattle of that district, 
they have produced a numerous progeny called the Kolmo- 
gory breed, " remarkable for its yield of milk." * 

Every breed has limited adaptations. A breed valuable 
in one section may not be valuable in another that differs 
in soil, lay of territory, and wants of its inhabitants. The 
characteristics of this breed make it specially valuble on 
rich soils, level lands, and in densely populated districts, 
where every product — milk, butter, cheese, beef, and veal 
— can be utilized. In view of the law of utility the merits 
of a breed may properly be measured by its distribution. 
We find that this breed occupies more territory and is more 
widely distributed than any other dairy breed. It is the 
exclusive breed of North Holland and Friesland, " more 
esteemed than any other in Belgium ;" f " furnishing the 
best and most prolific cows in Germany ;" :f: " crossed on 
native cattle, the favorite in St. Petersburg," § and largely 
used in almost every dairy section of Europe outside of 
Switzerland and Great Britain. || It is also being intro- 
duced into South Africa, New Zealand, and several of the 
South American states. 

Its introduction and spread in this country is one of the 
marvels of our time. The first herd-book was published 
in 1872 with 128 entries. The Holstein-Friesian Associa- 
tion was formed in 1885 by the union of two others. No 
association ever handled cattle with less subterfuge. At 
its annual meeting, June 7, 1899, it reported 74,474 entries. 
It also reported two hundred official butter tests during 
the preceding year. These tests were under supervision 
of experiment stations with a view of determining butter 
capacity. The Babcock test was invariably used, and the 
periods of testing were for seven consecutive days. Fifty- 
five full-age cows yielded an average of 15.06 lbs. butter-fat, 



* U. S. Consular Reports [1886]— Cattle and Dairy -Farming, p. 519. 
t The same, p. 367. 
X The same, pp. 398, 404. 
§ The same, p. 519. 

II Importations from the Continent prevented by severe quarantine 
laws. 



194 DATKYIN"G. 

twenty-two four-year-olds yielded an average of 14.26 lbs., 
forty-one three-year-olds an average of 12.61 lbs., and 
eighty-two two-year-olds 9.37 lbs. Up to the present time, 
the close of the year 1899, equal records under as severe 
surveillance have been made by no other breed. 

IV. Ayrshires. 

By C. M. WiNSLOw, Brandon, Vt., Secretary Association of Ayrshire 
Breeders. 

The original home of the Ayrshire cow is in Scotland, 
in the county of Ayr. This county has always been noted 
for its dairy industry, and the thrift of its inhabitants. 
The soil is strong, giving good pasturing and abundant 
crops, the climate is rough, and people and cattle hardy. 

The Ayrshires began to attract the attention of dairy- 
men in other parts of the world some fifty years ago, and 
there was an importation made into Canada and the New 
England states, where they are bred in considerable num- 
bers and highly prized. They have been sent South, and 
are said to endure the heat better than any other breed. 
They also are said to stand the cold of Canada better than 
any other dairy breed. 

The Ayrshire cow is of medium size, weighing about one 
thousand pounds, of blocky build, low on legs, and usually 
spotted in color, being red and white as a rule, though 
sometimes nearly red. They are hardy and healthy, en- 
during changes of heat and cold with little discomfort, and 
quickly adapt themselves to surrounding conditions. They 
perhaps show to the best advantage where the food sup- 
ply is limited, and they are compelled to hunt for a full 
supply. 

It is claimed for the cows of this breed that they will 
give the largest return of dairy product for food consumed 
of any of the dairy breeds. There has never been much 
said or done by the owners of Ayrshires to bring their 
merits to the attention of the public. They are a popular 

* U. S. Consular Reports [i886]— Cattle and Dairy Farming, pp. 398, 404, 
t The same, p. 519, 



DAIRY COWS. 195, 

cow for the milkman, because they are economical pro- 
ducers and because they give milk of good quality that 
satisfies the trade. 

High-grade Ayrshire cows always command the highest 
fancy price in Brighton, to go into the stables of milk pro- 
ducers. It i3 said by the milk inspectors of Boston that 
they have no trouble Avith the milk from Ayrshire herds, 
it being up to the 13 per cent total solids required by Massa- 
chusetts law. 

The average yield of Ayrshire cows is a little over 6000 
lbs. of milk in a year, on ordinary dairy food and care, but 
there are a large number of individual cows with authenti- 
cated records all the way from 7000 lbs. to over 12,000 lbs. 
of milk in a year. There has never been any attempt 
made to develop the butter quality of the Ayrshire cow, 
and but little is known of her ability in this direction; but 
occasional evidence shows her to be naturally adapted to 
taking a high stand as a butter maker, if she was desired 
for that branch of dairying. The following instances of 
her butter quality will illustrate: 

Duchess of Smithfield, owned by Mr. Watson, gave an 
official record of 19 lbs. 6 oz. of butter in seven days. 

Rena Myrtle, a cow sold by the writer to the experiment 
station at Burlington, Vt., gave them this last year 546 lbs. 
of butter in 365 days, being the largest butter record they 
ever made by any cow of any breed. Her milk record for 
the time was 12,172 lbs. 

I might mention other instances, but they are private 
records. 

The Ayrshire, being a dairy cow, has never been claimed 
for beef or even for a general purpose cow, but her easy 
keeping qualities and hardy disposition cause her to lay 
on flesh rapidly when dry, and she will probably return to 
her owner in beef the full cost of raising her. Farmers 
who fatten calves for veal tell me the calves are small 
when born, but grow so rapidly that when of age to sell, 
are large and heavy for their age and are good handlers. 

[Mr. VVinslow's herd of Ayishircs averaged during 1S95 
67G5 lbs. of milk; average per cent of fat, 3.85; average 



196 DAIRYING. 

yield of butter fat, 260.5 lbs., or of butter, 303.9 lbs. (see 
p. 244). In maintaining his herd he adheres to the following 
requirements: 

" Size: About 1000 pounds at maturity, this size having 
been found to give the best results in this locality, and 
being of sufficient size to please buyers, either for breeding 
or to sell in Brighton as milk cows. 

" Color: Dark red with white patches — about one-fourth 
white being preferred. This gives a wonderfully attractive 
and lively look to a herd of cows, grouped or moving. 
Then, too, I have thought cows of this color were tougher 
and gave yellower milk and butter. 

" Style: Small head and horns, slim neck, straight back, 
sharp shoulders, wide on the loin; large, shapely hind 
quarters; long, slim tail; udder extending well forward 
and back, well up under belly; teats long, of equal length, 
well spread; large milk veins. 

" Disposition: Quiet and pleasant." — W.] 

V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. 

By J. H. PicKRELL, Springfield, 111., Secretary American Shorthorn Breed- 
ers' Association. 

Away back in the early history of this country, there 
were occasionally cows imported from England. Buffalo 
and wild game were abundant for meat, but milk, butter, 
and cheese did not come that way. 

As creatures of circumstances, cows were in demand. 
Soon after the Revolutionary War, cattle that were pure- 
bred Shorthorns were imported into Virginia, and after- 
wards, in 1797, found their way into Kentucky. The cov/s 
were said to be great milkers, and are reported to have 
given as much as 32 quarts of milk per day, and were 
called by the natives " the milk breed." Later importa- 
tions with more particular reference to their beef qualities 
were made, but, in spite of all that had been fed into them 
with that end in view, many of the cows developed into 
remarkably heavy milkers, and were very noted for their 
large yield of a good quality of milk. 

The late L. F. Allen, in his history of "American Cat- 
tle," published in 1S68, says: "We have numerous well- 



DAIRY COWS. 197 

authenticated instances of their (Shorthorns) giving six, 
seven, eight, and even nine gallons a day, on grass alone, 
in the height of their season, and yielding fourteen to 
eighteen pounds of butter per week, and of holding out in 
their milk in proportionate quantity, as well as other 
breeds of cows, through the year. Cows so much larger 
in size than other kinds should be expected to give more 
than smaller ones that consume less food, and without as- 
serting that they do give more, in proportion to their size, 
it is claimed that when educated and used for the dairy 
chiefly, they give quite as much as others. That the in- 
herent quality of abundant milking exists in the Short- 
horns, no intelligent breeders of them need doubt. Our 
own observation in more than thirty years' experience 
with hundreds of them, first and last, under our own eyes, 
is to ourself evidence of the fact, both in thoroughbreds 
and grades." 

The Columbian dairy tests, though made under un- 
favorable circumstances, proved the milking qualities of 
Shorthorns. I say unfavorable, because the matter" was 
not taken hold of soon enough by the American Short- 
horn Breeders' Association, under whose auspices the ex- 
hibit was made, to select the best cows in every instance 
so as to have them bred to produce and have them at their 
highest flow of milk at the proper time. As a conse- 
quence, cows had to be picked up that had produced at 
hap-hazard, and were not in every instance the best that 
might have been used, if selections had been made in sea- 
son to have them bred so as to have them produce just prior 
to the tests. But with all these disadvantages, the two 
strictly acknowledged dairy breeds — bred for that purpose 
almost exclusively — which were selected with the greatest 
care, so much so that it is doubtful whether they could be 
duplicated, had but little the advantage of the Shorthorns in 
the general ** round-up," as a few comparisons will prove. 
In test No. i (cheese), with 25 cows of each breed, the 
score stood as follows: 

Jerseys 906. i points 

Shorthorns 905.5 " 

Guernseys 871.9 " 



198 DAIKYIKG. 

In the score for perfection of lOO points flavor was counted 
55 points. 

Shorthorns headed the list by taking 504.3 points. 

Jerseys 497-8 

Guernseys 489-4 

The cost of production was : 

Shorthorns $99-36 

Jerseys 98. 14 

Guernseys 76.25 

The champion cheese cow of the Jerseys netted $6.97 

" " " " " " Shorthorns netted.. 6.27 

'« «• " " " " Guernseys " .. 5.27 

In the second test, 90 days, for butter, loss and gain in 
live weight, where maintenance was counted against the 
cows, the net gain was for 

Jerseys (25 cows) $1,323.81 

Guernseys (25 cows) 997-63 

Shorthorns (24 cows) 91^-13 

To produce this result it cost the 

Jerseys (25) I587.87 

Shorthorns (24) 506.50 

Guernseys (25) 487-25 

The champion 

Shorthorn cow (Nora) produced 3679.8 lbs. of milk. 
Jersey (Brown Bessie) " 3634 " " 

Guernsey (Materna) " 3548-8 " " " 

When reduced to gain in the products over cost of pro- 
duction, the account stood as follows : 

Jersey cow $73-22 

Guernsey cow 57-82 

Shorthorn cow 52.63 

Again, in tests 2. 3, and 4 (Guernseys were not 
in test No. 4) the three best Shorthorns (one in each 

test, including the two-year-old heifer) gave 5861 lbs. 

While the Jerseys of the san;e description gave. - 5330 " 

Showing in favor of Shorthorns 53i 



Dairy cows. 199 

In test No. 3 (butter), "go as you please," 
The champion Jersey cow at a cost of $8.57 pro- 
duced net • $24.69 

The champion Shorthorn cow at a cost of $8.18 

produced net ^9-57 

The champion Guernsey cow at a cost of $5-57 pro- 
duced net ^19-37 

In test No. 4 (heifers) 7 Jerseys cost for food $34-43 

and netted. . 56.27 

6 Shorthorns cost $23.52 and netted 47-42 

making an average of 13 cents per head in favor of the Jer- 
seys. 

While butter was rated by points, beef was not, and the 
Jerseys got as much allowance per pound for gain in live 
weight as the Shorthorns. 

As hinted above, dairy cows are not always wanted for 
butter alone, or cheese alone, but very frequently to sup- 
ply city customers with good milk for their tables. The 
tests at the Columbian Dairy School proved that for a 
large supply of milk of the best flavor. Shorthorns not 
only were good dairy cows in every sense of the term, but 
that they led the other two breeds. . Therefore, if milk of 
good quality and lots of it is wanted. Shorthorn cows can 
supply it, to say nothing of their " general-use " qualities 
that will just suit the farmer who wants milk, butter, 
cheese, and beef. 

VT. Red Polled Cattle. 

By J. McLain Smith, Dayton, Ohio, Secretary Red Polled Cattle Club of 
America. 

Hornless or polled cattle have existed in the counties of 
Norfolk and Suffolk, England, from time immemorial. 
Originally there were two distinct types: the Suffolks, 
usually of a pale red or dun color, and hence known as 
Suffolk duns — large and rather rough cattle, but celebrated 
for their milking qualities; and the Norfolks, commonly 
deep red in color, smaller, finer, more compact in build, 
not so large milkers, but great favorites with the butcher. 



200 DAIRYIi^^G. 

Youatt, speaking of the old Suffolk strain as it existed 
in his day (some half century ago), says: " In the height 
of the season some of these cows will give as much as eight 
gallons of milk (80 lbs.) in a day, and six gallons (60 lbs.) 
is not an unusual quantity." 

The modern Red Polled cow is a result of the combina- 
tion of these old strains, and it is the aim of the most pro- 
gressive breeders to produce a cow of medium size, blood- 
red in color, of fine bone, smooth and compact of form, 
hardy, docile, fatting easily, and giving'a good flow of 
fairly rich milk all the year round. The breed, in other 
words, is being developed as a general farm cow, suited 
to the wants of the general farmer. While the cows can- 
not, I think, compete in flow of milk with the best Hol- 
steins, or in yield of butter with the best Jerseys, and the 
steers have not, as yet, taken a place in the front rank at 
the fat-stock shows, it is believed that the breed combines 
the several desirable traits as well at least as any other, and 
with them the equally essential qualities of hardiness, do- 
cility, and a hornless head. As an illustration of the points 
named, and a proof of their possible combination, the cow 
No. 2213, Gleaner, V, 9, is credited in 1894, according to 
the accepted record of the owner, with a yield of 14,189 lbs. 
of milk, an average of 38 86 lbs. a day for the entire year. 
The cow was then twelve years old, and was milking with 
her tenth calf (or tenth calving, as one or more of them 
produced twins). 

Among these is a pair of twins (Freemartins), shown 
as fat stock, at Norwich and London, England. The steer 
(ist and cup at Norfolk and ist at Smithfield') weighed at 
I year si months old, 1238 lbs., and when shown again, 
at 2 years 6 months old, had a live weight of 1735 lbs., a 
gain in a few days over a year of 497 lbs., and a gain 
from birth of about 2.12 lbs. a day. The heifer, twin to 
above (ist and reserve for cup at Norfolk and ist and 
reserve for cup at Smithfield), had a live weight when 
shown (2 years 6 months old) of 1452 lbs., a gain from birth 
of nearly 1.8 lbs. a day. 



DAIKY COWS. 201 

An illustration nearer home is reported by Dr. J. R. 
Slingerland, Trustee of the Shaker Society at Union Vil- 
lage, O. In January. 1895, he bought 35 head of Shorthorn 
steers, coming 2 years old, for feeding. At the same time 
they had 18 head, the same age, of their own breeding, the 
produce of a Red Polled bull on Shorthorn cows. At the 
time named the full-blood Shorthorns averaged 940 lbs. in 
weight, and the cross-breds 790 lbs. All were pastured the 
summer of 1895, fed out in the late fall, and sold to the 
same buyer on the same day in January, 1896. 

The full-blood steers consumed an average of 85 bushels 
of corn, besides hay and corn-fodder, in fatting, and weighed 
v/hen sold an average of 1540 lbs. each — a gain of 600 lbs. 
in the year. They sold for $4 a hundred. The polled cross- 
breds consumed an average of 50 bushels of corn, with 
corn-fodder only for roughage, and weighed when sold an 
average of 1492 lbs. — a gain in the year of 702 lbs. They 
sold for $4.25 a hundred. 

The Red Polled bull, Osman 1251, used in producing the 
cross-bred steers in this trial, is the son of a full sister to 
Eleanor, and is the sire of many fine dairy cows. 

In appearance the Red Polls greatly resemble Devons, 
save the horns, and except that they are somewhat larger, 
and the cows, as a rule, are better milkers. They have the 
same rich color, fine bone, round, smooth, compact form, 
free from prominent points, and the same muscular habit 
and active disposition ; and their meat is of the same fine- 
grained, juicy character. 

Milking Qtialities. — The modern Red Polled cow does not 
milk so largely as the old Suffolk, but her milk is of better 
quality. Sixty pounds a day, which Youatt says in his time 
was not unusual, is now, I think, somewhat rare. Four 
and a half to five gallons a day, or say 40 to 45 lbs., is a 
good yield from a mature cow in the flush of the season. 
But she will easily give, with proper care, 6000 to 8000 lbs. 
in a year, and some will considerably exceed this. In the 
report of English herds, published in the Red Polled Herd 
Book, the average yields of mature cows in the best herds 
is fiom 5000 to over 7000 lbs. a year. In Lord Rothchild's 



20^ DAlRYIKG. 

herd, 22 cows, seven milking with first or second calf, gave 
in 1895 an average of 7744^ lbs. of milk each. In my own 
little herd the mature cows will average over 6000 lbs. of 
milk a year and 4 per cent of fat. 

Bee/ Qualities. — In this line, so far, we are entirely de- 
pendent for facts on the. English records. No full-blood 
steers of the breed have as yet been shown in this country. 
A few samples will suffice. At the Smithfield Club Show in 
1889, two Red Polled steers, two years old, showed the 
largest daily gain of anything on exhibition that old — 2.18 
lbs. and 2.29 lbs., respectively. At the Smithfield Club 
Show of 1890 a Red Polled steer dressed the highest per 
cent of his live weight of any animal slaughtered — 73-72 
per cent. This, according to the London Live Stock Jou7-nal, 
has only once been exceeded in England — by a cross-bred 
steer, which dressed 74 per cent of his live weight. 

At the fat-stock shows in England in 1894 the following 
live weights were recorded : A steer i year io| months, 
1374 lbs., and a year later 1702 lbs. ; a steer i year loj 
months, 1323 lbs.; a steer i year io| months, 1208 lbs., and 
a year later 1656 lbs. ; a steer i year 9 months, 1250 lbs., a 
year later 1728 lbs., and at 3 years 9 months 2112 lbs. 

Mature Red Polled cows, in breeding condition, should 
weigh 1200 to 1400 lbs., and bulls 1800 to 2000 lbs. A few 
will greatly exceed these weights, but many, as now bred, 
are smaller. These, however, are about the weights at- 
tained in the best herds. 

VII. Devon Cattle. 

By L. P. SissoN, Wheeling, W. Va., Secretary American Devon Cattle Club. 

The Devon breed of cattle is one of the oldest of the 
English cattle. Their native home is on the highlands of 
Devonshire, in southwestern England. Our records show 
that in the year 1800 Messrs. Winthrop & Davenport im- 
ported Devons into Plymouth, Mass. ; in 1805 General Eaton 
imported some into Otsego county, New York; in 1817 Mr. 
George Patterson came into possession of some Devons, 
brought over by T. W. Coke, who presented them to a 



DAIRY COWS. 203 

brother of George Patterson; these afterward were the 
foundation of the above-mentioned herd (George Patter- 
son of Sykesville, Md.). These and other animals im- 
ported by Mr, Patterson, our records show, were all brought 
from Devonshire, and from the best that could be found 
there. 

Others were imported into New York State; among im- 
porters whom we might mention are John Cowlin of Trux- 
ton, N. J.; L. F. Allen, Miles Vernon, A. Becket, W. P. 
& C. S. Wainwright, Col. L. G. Morris, D. W. Catlin, W. 
R. Sanford, J. Howard McHenry of Pikesville, Md.; C. P. 
Halcomb of Delaware, and others. Later importations are 
by James Murray of Virginia, R. W. Cameron of New 
York, Frank Brown of Baltimore, Md., and still later John 
Hudson, Moweaqua, 111., Dr. J. Cheston Morris, Philadel- 
phia, Pa., and A. S. Worden, Ulysses, Pa. 

As to the beef qualities of the Devons one only has to 
turn to the records of the markets of the country to see 
that they are among the leading beefers, bringing the top 
prices at all times. As to milk and butter production from 
Devons, it will be found from records that they produce 
from 12 to 25 lbs. of butter per week. Mr. A. E. Baker, of 
Wisconsin, says his cows average him 365 lbs. of butter 
per cow for the year, which is about as much as any breed 
will do on farmers' feed and care. Dr. J. Cheston Morris 
says, in regard to Devons for milk: " A herd of Devons may 
be relied upon to give an annual yield of 2000 quarts of 
milk from each cow; the length of the period averages be- 
tween 10 and II months, though single cows will continue 
in profit from 13 to 14 months. An average yield of seven 
quarts daily from each cow may therefore be expected, 
and an examination of milk records of Devon herds will 
show that they are remarkably uniform in their yields. 
As comparatively little attention has been paid to their 
milking qualities, a large improvement may be looked for 
by proper selection and breeding. As my animals weigh 
only 700 lbs. each, it follows that each cow has given be- 
tween five and six times her own weight in milk during 
the course of the year, besides maintaining her own 



204 DAIRYIlirG. 

weight, and producing healthy offspring. This I consider 
a physiological fact well worthy of notice, and very 
creditable to the ' little red cow.' Of course the same 
nutritive power applied in other directions would give 
beef-producing results, such as we all know of." 

Devon cattle are active and very hardy, qualities that 
make them especially valuable in dry or mountainous re- 
gions. The bulls are quite intelligent and active, and are 
not as liable to be cross as some other breeds; they weigh 
from 1800 to 2000 lbs. at three to four years old. The cows 
have strong vital organs, and large digestive and assimi- 
lating powers. Their udders are not large for the amount 
of milk they give, with good elastic teats, seldom sore. 
The milk is of good quality, either as food for infants and 
invalids, for the manufacture of butter or cheese, or for 
market delivery; it does not churn in the cans, nor look 
blue in the bottle. 

Devons will pay their way at the dairy as well as in the 
feeder's stable; they will keep in good condition, and look 
plump and sleek on pasture that other breeds can hardly 
live on; they are easy keepers, good producers of the finest 
kind of milk, and also make the very best quality of beef. 

VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. 

By H. B. Richards, Easton, Penna., Secretary Dutch Belted Cattle Asso- 
ciation of America. 

Dutch belted cattle are natives of Holland, and originated 
in that country during the seventeenth century, when the 
cattle interests of Holland were in the most thrifty condi- 
tion; in fact, it was the chief industry of the country. At 
that time breeding had been developed to a science, and 
cattle of remarkable contrast of color were bred whose 
foundation color was black, with a broad white band 
around the centre of the body, a white head, a black ring 
around each eye, and a full white tail. Wonderful and 
remarkable as it may appear, a feat was accomplished 
during that period that would defy our modern breeders 
and can be safely classified as a lost art. 

Dutch belted cattle became a classified breed and were 



DAIRY COWS. 205 

bred to a remarkably high standard. For several centuries 
they were owned and controlled by the nobility keeping 
them pure and limiting their number to their ownership. 
They were first imported into this country about the mid- 
dle of the present century, the importers procuring the 
finest herds in Holland; the herds in the United States 
to-day are purely of American breeding. 

The American Association have adopted as their standard 
of color a pure black, with a continuous white belt around 
their body, beginning behind the shoulders and extending 
nearly to the hips; this sharp contrast of colors makes a 
beautiful and imposing contrast and a most beautiful 
sight; when seen in number grazing on the green, they are 
admired by all, even if not interested in cattle or farm- 
ing. This belt is almost invariably reproduced, and is 
so perfectly fixed that it will crop out in their grades for 
many generations, even against cold strains of blood; the 
potency of this feature is very striking, as the belt is often 
reproduced after the foundation color is lost; and grades 
of any foundation color can be produced to an unlimited 
extent. 

Their form is a strong characterized dairy type, medium 
size, and possessing all the qualifications of an ideal dairy 
animal. They are strictly a dairy breed, and are large and 
persistent milkers; strong constitutions, peaceable and 
quiet dispositions of a very compact form. Cows range 
from eight to twelve hundred, and bulls reach eighteen 
to twenty hundred. The late P. T. Barnum, the showman 
of national fame, said: "They struck my fancy in Holland 
about 1850; I imported a few, and then found their unique 
and novel appearance not their only quality, for they 
proved to be wonderful milkers, far superior to any other 
cattle to which my attention has been drawn." 

Nearly all the herds now in the United States are owned 
in New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts, with a 
few scattering South and West. A herd of eighteen were 
exhibited at the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, 
where they attracted great attention and were admired by 
thousands who had never heard of such novel ana beauih\:: 



206 DAIRYIt^TG. 

cattle before. This herd was sold and exported to a wealthy 
resident of the City of Mexico, where they are now kept 
and are doing well in that congenial climate. There is an 
association of breeders of these cattle known as the Dutch 
Belted Cattle Association of America, who have adopted a 
high standard of excellence, requiring breeders to breed 
typical animals of correct markings, thereby gaining 
uniformity and correctness of type. The association issues 
a herd-book, of which vol. 4, of recent issue, is the last 
number. 

IX. Brown-Swiss Cattle. 

By N. S. Fish, Groton, Conn., Secretary Brown-Swiss Cattle Breeders' 
Association. 

Brown-Swiss cattle were first imported into this coun- 
try by Mr. Henry M. Clarke of Belmont, Mas*-., in 1869. 
He imported seven cows and one bull; since then there 
have been several importations. Most of the animals 
have come from the famed Canton of Schwyz, and the 
adjacent Cantons of Zug, Uri, and Unterwalden. The Rigi 
mountains, covered to their tops with fine, rich herbage, lie 
here, and some of the finest breeds of cattle in the whole 
country are here produced, the cattle grazing in the valley 
in winter and on the mountains in summer. 

The United States consul at Zurich in 1882 made a report 
to our government of the cattle and dairy interest of 
Switzerland. He writes: "For a hundred years Switzer- 
land has been famous for the production of its dairies. At 
the cattle show of Paris, 1878, every Swiss cow exhibited 
bore away a prize in competition with exhibits from Hol- 
land, England, Denmark, and other famous cattle countries. 

The Brown-Swiss cattle are fed on grass or hay only 
the year through. A fair average for cows in Canton 
Zurich is ten quarts of milk per day the milking-year 
through; in Schwyz and Zug the average is but little 
less." 

The consul of St. Gall says: "When a farmer in Ger- 
many, Italy, or France wishes to improve his breed, he 



DAIRY COWS. 207 

makes a selection from Swiss herds as the healthiest and 
hardiest known to the herd-book. . . . Tne Brown- 
Swiss is considered the dairy breed par excellence of Swit- 
zerland; it not only gives more milk, but this is richer 
than any other European breed of cattle." 

Marked Characteristics. — Size large; form firm; color 
shades from dark to light chestnut brown. The tuft of 
hair between the horns, on the inside of ear, and a narrow 
line along the back generally light. Horns rather short, 
waxey, with black tips. Nose black, with mealy-colored 
band surrounding nose. Switch, hoofs, and tongue black. 
Straight hind legs, wide thighs, and heavy quarters. The 
cows often weigh 1600 lbs., bulls 2000 lbs. Calves large, 
some weighing no lbs. when dropped. They mature fast, 
have healthy constitutions, yielding generous returns for 
whatever care, time, labor, or money is expended on them. 

A cow shown at the Chicago Fat Stock Show in November. 
1891. gave in three days 245 lbs. of milk, showing 9.32 lbs. of 
butter-fat by the Babcock test, yielding during one day of 
the test 3i lbs. of fat, the largest amount of butter-fat ever 
shown at an official test of any cow of any breed up to that 
time. The cow Muotta calved about November i, 1893, 
and in February, 1894, gave 67 lbs. of milk in one day. 

The milk of Brown-Swiss cows has a sweet flavor which 
is very noticeable, and makes it very desirable for family 
use. With good farm care the cows give under favorable 
circumstances from 20 to 25 quarts of milk per day. They 
make the finest of beef and veal; when intenaed to be 
used for working oxen, they are easily broken and are fast 
walkers. 

The cows are persistent milkers, with good teats; where 
used to produce grade animals they give the best of sat- 
isfaction, with the Swiss characteristics predominating. 
There are now about 1800 recorded animals in this country, 
located in almost every State, and some in Mexico, 



208 DAIRYING. 

YIELD OF MILK AND FAT FROM DAIRY COWS. 

A good dairy cow should give at least 5000 pounds ol 
milk during a whole period of lactation. As the quality 01 
milk given by different cows varies greatly, however, as 
will be apparent from the tables given in the following, the 
yield of fat produced during a lactation period is a better 
standard to go by than that of the milk; three-fourths of a 
pound of tat per day for an average of 300 days may be con- 
sidered a good yield (total 225 pounds). Many dairy farmers 
aim to have all mature cows in their herds produce a pound 
of fat, on the average, for every day in the year. To do 
this, a cow whose milk tests about 4 per cent, must give 25 
pounds of milk a day (3 gallons) as an average for the 
whole year; a cow producing 3 per cent milk must give 33^ 
pounds of milk daily, and one producing 5 per cent milk 
must yield 20 pounds of milk daily, on the average, etc. 

The flow of milk is usually at its highest shortly after 
calving, and then gradually decreases, the rate of decrease 
being determined by the inbred milking qualities of the 
cow and the system of feeding practised. The average de- 
crease in milk yield for good dairy cows on good feed is 
from one half to three fourths of a pound per head per ten 
days. Where cows are not fed liberally and receive but lit- 
tle concentrated feed, the decrease will be more marked, 
and often exceed one pound of milk per head per ten days. 
The decrease is more marked during the latter stages of 
the period of lactation than in the earlier ones, and is also 
more marked in cows with poorly developed milking qual- 
ities than in good dairy cows. A cow is considered at her 
best when from five to seven years old; the constitutional 
strength of the animal, the system of feeding practised, 
and the general treatment given the cow will determine 
her period of usefulness. 

The quality of the milk produced by individual cows 
generally remains fairly uniform through the greater por- 
tion of the lactation period, and is not permanently influ- 
enced in any marked manner by feed or any external 
conditions. During the last couple of months, when the 



DAIRY COWS. 



209 



yield of milk is decreasing more rapidly than before, the 
quality is generally improved to some extent, the variation 
being, as a rule, within i per cent. Variations of several 
per cents of fat may sometimes occur from day to day, or 
milking to milking, jn the milk from single cows; variations 
amounting to i per cent are common. Herd milk varies 
much less, the percentages of fat on subsequent days being 
as a rule within two tenths of one per cent, and only excep- 
tionally near one per cent. 

RESULTS OF TESTS OF DAIRY BREEDS 

Conducted by American Agricultural 
Experiment Stations. 



Breed. 



New York 

(Geneva): 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein . . .. . 

Ayrshire 

Short Horn 

Devon 

American Hoi- 

derness 

Maine: 

Jersey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

New Jersey: 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Short Horn. . . 



-4^ 
6.2 



Averag'e 

Yields per 

Lactation 

Period. 



Milk. 



lbs. 

5045 
5385 
7918 
6824 
6055 
3984 

5721 

5460 
8^69 
6612 

7695 
7446 
8455 
7461 
10457 



Fat. 



lbs. 

282.1 

285 5 

266. T 

244. S 

269.0 
183.3 



297.0 

285.0 
233-0 

376.3 

379 -o 
300.2 
275-3 
396-3 



5.60 
5- 30 
3-36 
3.60 
4-44 
4.60 

3-73 

5-50 
3-47 

3-67 



5.09 
3-55 
3-69 
3-79 



Average Cost of 



Food 

Eaten 

per Day. 



cents 

12.4 
12.5 
13-9 
13-5 
12.7 
10.3 



16.2 
19-5 
17. 1 

16. 1 
14.9 
19-3 
15-0 
15-4 



Produc- 
ing lOO 
lbs. Milk. 



90 
86 
65 
74 
78 
94 

76 

113.0 
85.2 

94-9 

87.1 
78.1 
79-3 
76.0 
79.2 



Produc- 
ing I lb. 
Fat. 



cents 

16. 1 
16. 1 
19. 1 
20.2 
17.2 
20.5 

20.1 

20.4 
25.2 
26.8 



17.9 

15-3 
22.4 
20.6 
20.6 



Averages for all Breeds and Lactation Periods. 



Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Short Horn 

Devon 

American Hoi 
derness 



Total 



9 
8 


.8 

10 


5579 
6210 


301. 1 
322 9 


5.40 
5.20 


13-9 

13-5 


94-7 
82.8 


9 
10 
4 
3 


10 

20 

5 
5 


8215 
3984 


282.0 
248.5 
345-4 
183-3 


3-43 
3 60 

3-97 
4.60 


17.2 
14-5 
14-3 
10.3 


74.7 
78.5 
78.7 
94.0 


2 


4 


5721 


213. 1 


3-73 


II. 2 


76.0 


45 


72 













210 DAIRYING. 

The animals included in the foregoing breed tests rank 
on the average as follows: 

1. As to yield of fat: Shorthorn, Guernsey, Jersey, Hol- 
stein, Ayrshire, American Holderness, Devon. 

2. As to cost of producing I lb. of fat: Guernsey, Jersey, 
Shorthorn, American Holderness, Devon, Holstein and 
Ayrshire. 

3. As to yield of viilk : Shorthorn, Holstein, Ayrshire, 
Guernsey, American Holderness, Jersey, Devon. 

4. As to cost of producing 100 lbs. of tnilk: Holstein, 
Ame,rican Holderness, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, Guernsey, 
Devon, Jersey. 

5. As to cost of food: Devon, American Holderness, 
Guernsey, Jersey, Shorthorn, Ayrshire, Holstein. 

6. As to richness of milk: Jersey, Guernsey, Devon, Short- 
horn, American Holderness, Ayrshire, Holstein. 

RESULTS OF BREED TESTS CONDUCTED AT 
WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 

A. Breed Test No. I (Cheese Test), May 10 to 25. 
Milk Fat Price of 

Pro- Pro- Cheese, Cheese Cost 
duced, duc^d, 'bs. per lb., of Net 

lbs. lbs. cents. Feed. Gain. 

25 Jerseys 13,296.4 601.91 1451.8 13.36 $98.14 $119.82 

25 Guernseys 10,938.6 488.42 1130.6 11.95 76.25 88.30 

25Short-horns 12,186.9 436.60 1077.6 13.00 99-36 81.36 

B. Breed Test No. 2 (Ninety-day Butter Test), June i to Aug. 29. 

Butter Price of 
credited Bijtter. 

25 Jerseys.. 73,488.8 3516.08 4274.01 $1747.37 $587.50 $1323.81 

25 Guernseys 61,781.7 2784.56 3360.43 1355.44 484.14 997.64 

24Shoit-horns 66,263.2 2409,97 2890.87 1171.77 501.79 910.12 

Averages per day per cow. 

Fat, Cost of 

per cent. Food. 

Jerseys 32.7 1.56 4.78 26.1 cts. 

Guernseys 27.5 1.24 4.51 21.5 " 

Short-horns 30.7 1.12 3.64 23.2 " 

C. Breed Test No. 3 (Thirty-day Butter Test). Aug. 29 to Sept. 28. 

Butter Price of 
credited Butter. 

15 Jerseys 13,921-9 685.81 837.21 $385-59 $111.24 $274-13 

15 Guernseys i3'5i8.4 597-96 724-17 329-77 92-77 237.00 

15 Short-horns 15. 618. 3 555.43 662.67 303.69 104.55 198.89 

D. Breed Test No. 4 (Heifer Test), Sept 30 to Oct. 20. 

7 Jerseys. 3356.6 155-38 194-23 $77-69 $34-44 $56.28 

6 Short-horns 2581.0 97.89 122.36 48.95 23.53 47'4' 



DAIRY COWS. 



211 



AVERAGE YIELDS OF MILK AND FAT BY PRE- 
MIUM COAVS AT RECENT STATE FAIRS. 



New York. 

Maine. 
Mass. 
Ohio. 

Indiana. 
Illinois. 



Wisconsin. 

Iowa. 
Nebraska. 
California. 

Canada. 

Toronto. 

Guelph. 

Gananoque 



Name of Cow. 



Intze Von Hol- 
lingen 

Weston Lily 

Very Much 

Lady of Lyons 6th 

Nahe zd 

Cows over 3 yrs. 

old. 
Beulah Shawlan. .. 
Cows under "^yrs. 

old. 

Kitty King- 

Johanna 5th 

Daisy 

Eurodna 

Geertje Lefing 

Lady Woods 

Typha 

Eunice Clay 

Calamity Jane 

Carmen Sylva. ... 



Breed. 



Holstein 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Jersey 

Holstein 



Jersey 



Holstein 
Jersey 

Holstein 
Jersey 
Holstein 



Milk. 



lbs. 

58.5s 
48.68 
43 50 
44.75 
72.86 
47.00 



37-43 

29.60 
83-95 
40.15 
40.12 
50-3^ 
38.58 
49 73 



Fat. 



lbs. 

1. 691 
2.190 
2.150 
2.060 
2. no 
1-553 



1-585 



1.485 
2.500 
2.420 
1-597 
1. 510 
2.626 
1-544 



65.00 1.590 
6g . 1 8 2 . 090 
69.00 I. 914 



Fat. 



p.c. 

2.89 
4.50 
4.94 
4.62 
2.90 
3-30 



4-33 



5.02 
2.98 
5-95 
4-07 
;:?.oo 

6.74 
3.10 

2-45 
3 t6 
2.80 



Test made at 



Fair grounds. 
Home. 

Fair grounds. 



Home. 

Fair grounds. 



HIGHEST RECORD FOR YIELD OF FAT 

During Twenty-four Hours Made by any Cow in a 
Public Test. 



At a Fair. 


A t Home. 


Brienz, Brown-Swiss, 11 years old, 


Maplecroft Maid, No. 35907 H.-F. 


weighing 1395 lbs. 


H. B., 5 years 4 months old. 


Average daily yield of 


Yield of milk 76.0 lbs. 


milk . 81.7 lbs. 


" " fat 3.865 " 

Average per cent of fat 


Average daily yield of 


fat 3. II " 


in day's milk s.ijt 


Average per cent of fat 
in day's milk 3.81^ 


(7-day test. May 21-27, 1899, con- 
ducted under the supervision of 


(American Dairy Show. Chicago, 


the Cornell Exp. Station; total 


1891; 3-day test.) 


yield for the week, 496.5 lbs. of 




milk and 16.825 'bs. of fat; aver. 




per cent of fat in milk, 3.39$^.) 



212 



DAIRYING. 



OFFICIAL, MILK AND BUTTER RECORDS. 





36s 
Days. 


Days. 


24 
Hours. 


A. Milk Records. 
I. Holstein-Friesian : 

Yentje Netherland, No. 1332 Ad. Reg... 
Rosa Bonheur 5th, No. 11227 H.-F. K. B. 
Rosa Bonheur 5th . . . . 


lbs. 
20,232 


lbs. 


lbs. 


726H 


"ioeM" 


II. Guernsey : 

Lily of Alexander, No 1059 

III. Ayrshire : 

Alice Douglas, No. 4398 

B. Butter Records.* 
I, Holstein-Friesian : 

Rosa Bonheur st-h 


12.855}^ 
12,617 

527-3+ 








Netherl'd Hengerveld, No. 1 133 Ad. Reg. 


24.9 






4-Si 


II. Jersey : 


1,028^1 % 




Princess 2d No 8046. . 


46i2§ 

■■;8B 




III. Guernsey : 


703-4 








Lucille, No. 115 

IV. Ayrshire : 

Lady Fox, No. 9669 


624 


3/. 


19/g 











* Butter fat increased by one sixth in case of all breeds except the Jerseys. 
+ For 10 months 11 days. % From 8,4I2i''b lbs. of milk. 

§ From 299}^ lbs. of milk. 

RESULTS OF ENGLISH MILKING TRIALS. 

(Averages of breed-tests conducted at the annual dairy shows of the Brit- 
ish Dairy Farmers' Assoc, 1879-98, inclusive.) 



^S 



236 
272 
98 



78s 



Breed. 



Shorthorns 

Jerseys 

Guernseys 

Holsteins (Dutch) 

Ayrshires 

Devons 

Red Polls 

Welsh 

Aberdeen Angus 
Kerries and Dex 

ter Kerries 

Crosses . . 



Aver- 
age 
Yield of 
Milk 
per 

Day. 



lbs. 
45-4 
28.9 
30.6 
45-2 
42.2 
30.1 
41.9 
46.0 
60.3 

27.1 
53-1 



Total Solids, 



Yield 
Day, 



lbs. 
5-77 
4.18 
413 
5-53 
5. 61 
4-32 
5.26 
5.86 
8.29 

3.62 
7.07 



Per 
Cent 



12.72 
14.46 
13-50 
12.25 
13.29 
14-34 
12.55 
12.74 
13-74 

13-36 
13-31 



Fat. 



Yield 
per 
Day. 



lbs. 
1.70 
1-44 
1.41 

1-54 

1.77 

48 

54 

91 



Solids 
not 
Fat, 
Per Per 
Cent. Cent. 



3-75 
4-q8 
4.61 
341 
4.19 
4.90 
3-68 
4.16 
4-99 

4-13 
3-90 



6.97 
q.48 
8.89 
8.84 
9.10 
9.44 
8.87 
8.58 
8.75 

9-23 
9.41 



Live 
Weight. 



lbs. 
1405(117)* 
856(157) 
1026 (49) 

1383 (3) 
1046 (21) 



'62 (32) 



787 (41) 
230 (38) 



* Average for 117 animals, 



DAIRY COWS. 



213 



ENGLISH STANDARDS FOR ANNUAL YIELD OF 
MILK OP THE VARIOUS BREEDS. 

The stan*.1ards proposed for the respective breeds by the 
British Dairy Farmers' Association for entry in the " Dairy 
Cattle Register" are as under: 

Weight of Milk in Pure Butter Fat per 

the Milking^ Period Day (average of two 

(not exceeding II tests as determined 
Pedigree and Non-Pedigree. months). by analysis). 

lbs. lbs. 

Short-horn 8500 1.25 

Jersey 6000 1.25 

Guernsey 6000 1.25 

Ayrshire 7500 i.oo 

Red Polled 7000 i.oo 

Kerry and Dexter Kerry.. 4500 0.75 

Dutch (Holstein) 8500 i.oo 

The standard for crosses of either of the above will be 
the mean of the standards for the pure breeds. No animal 
is admitted whose milk contains less than 12 per cent of 
solids at any test. (McConnell.) 

AVERAGE YIELDS AND COMPOSITION OP MILK 
OP DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Hucho.) 



Breed. 


Live 

Wt., 
Lbs. 


Annual 
Yield. 


Average Per Cent. 


Per 1000 lbs. 
Live Wt. 


Milk, 
lbs. 


Fat, 
lbs. 


Solids. 


Fat. 


Solids 
not 
Fat. 


Milk, 
lbs. 

5200 
5600 
7000 
6300 
6600 
6700 
7300 
9000 


Fat, 
lbs. 


Short-horn 

Brown Swiss... 

Holstein 

Guernsey 

Ayshire 

Jersey 

Angler 


1300 
1300 
1 100 
1050 
1000 
900 
900 
550 


6800 
7300 
7700 
6600 
6600 
6600 
6600 
5000 


260 
275 
230 

330 
245 
300 
240 
190 


12.9 
13.0 
II 8 
14.7 
12.5 
14.7 
12.0 
12.5 


3-8 
3-8 
30 
5.0 
3-7 

It 


9.1 
9.2 
8.2 
9-7 
8.8 
9-7 
8.6 
8.7 


200 
210 
210 
310 
245 
330 
270 
350 


Kerry . . 





214 



DAIRYING. 



AVERAGE PERCEXTAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK 
FROM DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Konig.) 



Name of Breed. 



Steyer (Austrian) 

Simmenthal (Swiss). . . 
Tillerthal (Tyrolean).. 
Vorarlberg (Austrian). 

Algau ( Bavarian) 

Bohemian 

Holstein 

Oldenburg (German). . 

Angler (Danish) 

Short-horn .. 

Devon 

Ayrshire 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

French 

Scandinavian 







1 




??■ 










^ 




t% 


c3 






O rt 






W JD 


^ u 




















^< 


^ 


^ 


U*^ 


gc/. 


<; 




12 


86.90 


4.17 


3-24 


4.96 


• 73 




6 


87 26 


3-79 


2.64 


5-81 


.70 




22 


87.43 


3 70 


3 07 


510 


.70 




19 


87 


38 


3-54 


2.91 


5-40 


•77 




4 


87 


88 


3.20 


3.22 


5-13 


•57 




2 


86 


00 


506 


3-67 


463 


.64 




24 


88 


04 


3-25 


3-99 


4.16 


•56 




i8 


«7 


95 


3-38 


3.10 


4.81 


•76 




ID 


88 


-S 


3.12 










67 


87 


20 


3-47 


3.21 


5-43 


.69 




20 


86 


S7 


4-44 






.64 




43 


86 


93 


3.58 


3-42 


5 43 


.64 




^i 


8s 


90 


4-32 


3-34 


570 


•74 




26 


85 


39 


5" 


3.98 


4.38 


i.i4(?) 




12 


«7 


20 


3-9° 


3 07 


5.0b 


•77 




4 


88 


00 


3-51 


2.7b 


4-97 


.76 











Oc/3 



[3.10 8 
[2.748 



12.62 
12.12 
14.00 
11.96 
12.05 
11.85 
12.80 
13 43 
1307 
14. 10 
14.61 
12.80 
12.00 



METHODS OF JUDGING THE VALUE OF DAIRY 
COWS. 

The British Dairy Farmers' Association, which has con- 
ducted tests of dairy cows at their annual fair for the last 
twenty years, has during late years scored the dairy cows 
competing for premiums according to the following scale : 

I point for each pound of milk; 
20 points for each pound of fat; 
4 points for each pound of solids not fat. f 

I point for each ten days in milk after the first twenty 
days (limit 200 days). 
10 points are deducted from the total score for each 
per cent, of fat below three per cent in the milk. 

The cows entered in the test are separated into four 
classes, according to the breed, each class being divided 
into two divisions, cows and heifers. The classes are 
Shorthorns, Jerseys, Guernseys, and cross-breeds. 

Other associations abroad or in this country have not 
generally followed any definite plan from year to year in 
awarding premiums to dairy cows at fairs, the awards having 



DAIRY COWS. 215 

been given to cows producing most milk, or richest milk, 
or most butter-fat, or most solids, during the test, which 
may have lasted one to three days. At the Vermont State 
Fair, 1889, the following points were given : For each 20 
days since calving, i point ; for each 10 days of gestation, 
I point ; for each 2 oz. of total solids in 24 hours' milk, i 
point ; for each oz. of butter-fat in 24 hours' milk, 2 points; 
for each 2 oz. of salted butter from 24 hours' milk, i point. 
In the milking trials conducted by the Royal Agricultural 
Society of England, the size of the cows has been con- 
sidered, the cows being, as a rule, separated into two 
classes, viz., over and under tioo lbs. live weight. 

From the best information at hand at the present, the 
system of awards adopted by the British Dairy Farmers' 
Association, and given above, must be considered the most 
perfect and the most just to all concerned. Its main short- 
comings lie, as it would seem, in its not considering the 
food eaten by each animal during the test, and in the fact 
that the test is made at the fair, and not at home under 
every-day conditions and in surroundings familiar to the 
animals. The former objection would be removed by tak- 
ing into account the dry matter in the food eaten, as shown 
by chemical analysis. 

BUYING AND SELLING COWS BY TESTS OF THEIR 
3IILK. (Emery.) 

The money value of a cow may be estimated by multi- 
plying the number of gallons of milk which the cow gives 
by 12, adding to or subtracting from this product one dollar 
for every one fourth per cent of fat in the milk above or 
below 3.5 per cent. 

,, , pounds of milk per day , , 

Value =-^^ — ^ '- X 12-f 4(percent fat-3.5). 

(See Bull. No. 113, N. C. Exp. Station.) 



216 DAIRYIKG. 

FIFTY DAIRY RULES. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 
The Owner and his Helpers. — i. Read current dairy liter- 
ature and keep posted on new ideas. 

2. Observe and enforce the utmost cleanliness about the 
cattle, their attendants, the stable, the dairy, and all uten- 
sils. 

3. A person suffering from any disease, or who has been 
exposed to a contagious disease, must remain away from 
the cows and the milk. 

The Stable. — 4. Keep dairy cattle in a room or building 
by themselves. It is preferable to have no cellar below and 
no storage loft above. 

5. Stables should be well ventilated, lighted, and drained; 
should have tight floors and walls and be plainly con- 
structed. 

6. Never use musty or dirty litter. 

7. Allow no strong-smelling material in the stable for any 
length of time. Store the manure under cover outside the 
cow-stable, and remove it to a distance as often as practi- 
cable. 

8. Whitewash the stable once or twice a year ; use land 
plaster in the manure-gutters daily. 

g. Use no dry, dusty feed just previous to milking ; if 
fodder is dusty, sprinkle it before it is fed. 

10. Clean and thoroughly air the stable before milking ; 
in hot weather sprinkle the floor. 

11. Keep the stable and dairy-room in good condition, 
and then insist that the dairy, factory, or place where the 
milk goes be kept equally well. 

The Cozus. — 12. Have the herd examined at least twice a 
year by a skilled veterinarian. 

13. Promptly remove from the herd any animal suspected 
of being in bad health, and reject her milk. Never add an 
animal to the herd until certain it is free from disease, espe- 
cially tuberculosis. 

14. Do not move cows faster than a comfortable walk 
while on the way to place of milking or feeding. 

J5. Never allow the cows to be excited by hard driving, 



DAIRY COWS. 217 

abuse, loud talking, or unnecessary disturbance ; do not ex- 
pose them to cold or storms. 

i6. Do not change the feed suddenly. 

17. Feed liberally, and use only fresh, palatable feed- 
stuffs ; in no case should decomposed or moldy material be 
used. 

18. Provide water in abundance, easy of access, and 
always pure ; fresh, but not too cold. 

19. Salt should always be accessible. 

20. Do not allow any strong-flavored food, like garlic, 
cabbage, and turnips, to be eaten, except immediately after 
milking. 

21. Clean the entire body of the cow daily. If hair in the 
region of the udder is not easily kept clean it should be 
clipped. 

22. Do not use the milk within twenty days before calv- 
ing, nor for three to five days afterwards. 

Milking. — 23. The milker should be clean in all respects; 
he should not use tobacco ; he should wash and dry his 
hands just before milking. 

24. The milker should wear a clean outer garment, used 
only when milking, and kept in a clean place at other 
times. 

25. Brush the udder and surrounding parts just before 
milking, and wipe them with a clean, damp cloth or sponge. 

26. Milk quietly, quickly, cleanly, and thoroughly. Cows 
do not like unnecessary noise or delay. Commence milking 
at exactly the same hour every morning and evening, and 
milk the cows in the same order. 

27. Throw away (but not on the floor, better in the gut- 
ter) the first few streams from each teat ; this milk is very 
watery and of little value, but it may injure the rest. 

28. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody, 
stringy or unnatural in appearance, the whole mess should 
be rejected. 

29. Milk with dry hands; never allow the hands to come 
in contact with the milk. 

30. Do not allow dogs, cats, or loafers to be around at 
milking-time. 



218 DAIRYING. 

31. If any accident occurs by which a pail full or partly 
full of milk becomes dirty, do not try to remedy this by 
straining, but reject all this milk and rinse the pail. 

32. Weigh and record the milk given by each cow, and 
lake a sample morning and night, at least once a week, for 
testing by the fat test. 

Care of Milk. — 33, Remove the milk of every cow at once 
from the stable to a clean, dry room, where the air is pure 
and sweet. Do not allow cans to remain in stables while 
they are being filled. 

34. Strain the milk through a metal gauze and a flannel 
cloth or layer of cotton as soon as it is drawn. 

35. Aerate and cool the milk as soon as strained. If an 
apparatus for airing and cooling at the same time is not at 
hand, the milk should be aired first. This must be done in 
pure air, and it should then be cooled to 45 degrees if the 
milk is for shipment, or to 60 degrees if for home use or 
delivery to a factory. 

36. Never close a can containing warm milk which has 
not been aerated. 

37. If cover is left off the can, a piece of cloth or mosquito- 
netting should be used to keep out insects. 

38. If milk is stored, it should be held in tanks of fresh, 
cold water (renewed daily), in a clean, dry, cold room. 
Unless it is desired to remove cream, it should be stirred 
with a tin stirrer often enough to prevent forming a thick 
cream layer. 

39. Keep the night milk under shelter so rain cannot get 
into the cans. In warm weather hold it in a tank of fresh 
cold water. 

40. Never mix fresh warm milk with that which has been 
cooled. 

41. Do not allow the milk to freeze. 

42. Under no circumstances should anything be added to 
milk to prevent its souring. Cleanliness and cold are the 
only preventives needed. 

43. All milk should be in good condition when delivered. 
This nay make it necessary to deliver twice a day during 
the hottest weather. 



DAIRY COWS. 219 

44. When cans are hauled far they should be full, and 
carried in a spring wagon. 

45. In hot weather cover the cans, when moved in i 
wagon, with a clean wet blanket or canvas. 

The Utensils. — 46. Milk-utensils for farm use should be 
made of metal and have all joints smoothly soldered. 
Never allow them to become rusty or rough inside. 

47. Do not haul waste products back to the farm in the 
same cans used for delivering milk. When this is unavoid- 
able, insist that the skim-milk or whey-tank be kept clean. 

48. Cans used for the return of skim-milk or whey should 
be emptied and cleaned as soon as they arrive at the farm. 

49. Clean all dairy utensils by first thoroughly rinsing 
them in warm water; then clean inside and out with a brush 
and hot water in which a cleaning material is dissolved; 
then rinse and lastly sterilize by boiling water or steam. 
Use pure water only. 

50. After cleaning, keep utensils, inverted, in pure air, 
and sun if possible, until wanted for use. 



vzo 



DAIRYlKCt. 



II. MILK. 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS KINDS 
OF 3IILK. (KoNiG.) 



Specific 
Grav- 
ity. 



Human 

Mare 

Buffalo 

Ass 

Cow 

Ewe 

Goat 

Reindeer* 

Sow 

Bitch 

Rhphant 

Hippopotamus 

Camel 

Llama 



No. of 






Casein 


Milk . 
Sugar. ^ 




Analy- 
ses. 


Water. 


Fat. 


and Al- 
bumen. 


sh. 


107 


87. 4T 


378 


2.29 


6.21 


31 


50 


90.78 


1. 21 


1.99 


5.67 


35 


8 


82.25 


7-51 


5-05 


4-44 


7.S 


7 


89.64 


1.64 


2.22 


5-99 


51 


793 


87.17 


3.69 


3-55 


4.88 


71 


32 


80.82 


6.86 


6.52 


4. 91 


89 


33 


85.71 


4.78 


4.29 


4.46 


76 


2 


67.20 


17.10 


11.39 


2.82 I 


49 


20 


82. SI 


5.78 


6.?4 


4-37 I 


00 


28 


7S-44 


9-57 


II. 17 


309 


73 


3 


79 30 


9.10 


2-51 


8.59 


50 


I 


90.43 


4-51 




4.40 


II 


3 


86.57 


3-07 


4.00 


5-59 


77 


3 


86.55 


315 


3-90 


5 -60 


80 



1.0270 

I '0347 

1.0330 

1-0345 

I. 0316 

1.034T 

1.0328 

1.0477 

1.0385 

^•035 

I. 0^1 5 



:.042 
.034 



* Werenskiold. 

AVERAGE ANALYSES OF AMERICAN SAMPIaES 
OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. (Goessmann.) 





Whole 
Milk. 


Skim- 
milk. 


Butter- 
milk. 


Cream 

from 

Cooley 

Creamer. 


Butter. 


No. of samples 


18S9 


348 


31 


197 


25 


Water 


86.53 
4.14 

5-43* 
.70 


90.52 

• 32 

3-53^ 

4-83* 

.80 


91.67 
.27 

4.47* 
.80 


73-90. 

17.60 

"'^62 


10.89 


Fat 


83.95 


Casein and albumen.. 
Milk-sugar 


.42* 


Ash 


4-74 




100.00 


IVO.OO 


100.00 




100.00 


Total solids 


13-47 
9-33 


9.48 

9.16 


8.33 
8.06 


26.10 
8.44 


89.11 


Solids not fat 


5.X6 



* By difference. 



MILK, 



221 



AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COWS' MILK, WITH 
VARIATIONS. (KoNiG.) 





Average of 
793 Analyses 
(largely Euro- 
pean). 


Minimum. 


Maximum. 


Water 

Fat 


87 17 per cent. 
3-69 " " 
3;°;[3.55Perct. 

4.88 per cent. 
.71 " " 


80.32 per cent. 
T.67 " " 

^;79j..o7perct. 
2. II per cent. 
•35 " " 


90.69 per cent. 
6.47 " " 


Casein 

Albumen 

Milk-sugar 


^-9 J 6.40 per ct. 
6.12 per cent. 


Ash 


1.21 " " 






Total solids 

^oIiHq rtnt fat 


100.00 

12.83 percent. 

9.14 " " 
I. 0316 


9.31 per cent. 


19.68 per cent. 


specific gravity 


S.0264 


1.0370 



COMPOSITION OF MORNING AND EVENING MILK, 
AND OF MORNING, NOON, AND EVENING MILK. 

(KONIG.) 





No. 

of An- 
alyses. 


Water. 


Fat. 


Casein 

and 

Albumen. 


Milk- 
sugar. 


Ash. 


Total 

Solids. 


Morning milk. 
Evening " 


^57 
t57 


Per ct. 

86.70 
86.47 


Per ct 

3.32 
3-56 


Per ct. 

3.63 
3-65 


Per ct. 

5-64 
5.60 


P'rct. 

•71 
.72 


Per ct: 

13 30 
1353 


Morning milk. 
Noon 
Evening " 


28 
28 

2 J 


88.08 
87.44 
87.49 


3-o6 
3-87 
3-62 


3-24 
3.26 

319 


4.88 
4.68 
4.99 


•74 
•75 
•71 


11.92 
12.51 



COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE 
SAME MILKINGS. (Konig.) 





No. 
of An- 
alyses. 


Water 


Fat. 


Casein 

and 

Albumen. 


Milk- 
bugar. 


Ash. 


Total 
Solids. 


First portion.. 
Second " .. 
Third " .. 


7 
I 


Per ct. 

89.84 
88.12 
86.29 


Per ct. 

1.78 
3-34 
4-52 


Per ct. 

2.88 
2.94 
2-59 


Perct. 
4.81 
4.92 
5.88 


P'rct. 

.69 
.68 
.72 


Per ct. 

10.16 
11.88 
I3-7' 



222 



DAIRTII^G. 



CAIiCUIiATlON OF COMPONENTS OF COWS' 
MILK. 

According to Vieth the components of the non-fatty milk 
solids will stand in the ratio to one another of about 

10 : 13 : 2 

for casein and albumen : milk sugar : ash. 

If the solids not fat in a sample of milk are g per cent, 
the per cent of casein and albumen in the same will be 
approximately 2^g X 10 = 3.60 per cent; sugar, ^% X 13 = 4-68 
per cent; and ash, /^ X 2 = .72 per cent. 

TABLE SHOWING RELATION OF FAT TO CASEIN 
AND OTHER SOLIDS. (Cooke.) 



Total Solids. 


Fat. 


Casein and 
Albumen. 


Milk-sugar 
and Ash. 


Solids 
not Fat. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


11.00 


3-07 


2.92 


5.01 


7-93 


11.50 


3.29 


3.00 


5.21 


8.21 


12.00 


3-50 


3-07 


5-43 


8.50 


12.50 


3.75 


3-19 


5.56 


8.75 


13.00 


3-99 


3.30 


5-71 


9.01 


13-50 


4.34 


3-44 


5-72 


9.16 


14.00 


4.68 


3-57 


5-75 


9-32 


14.50 


4-93 


3-79 


5.68 


9-47 


15.00 


5.38 


4.00 


5.62 


9.62 


15.50 


5-69 


4-15 


5-66 


9.81 


16.00 


6.00 


4-30 


5.70 


10.00 



This table, which is summarized from the analyses of 
about 2400 American samples of milk, shows that while the 
percentage of fat varies from 3.07 to 6 per cent, or nearly 

three per cent, that of casein varies only from 2.92 ^^ .,.^^ 
per cent, less than one and one half per cent. It also 
shows that a higher percentage of fat is always accom- 
panied by a higher percentage of casein. Milk sugar and 
ash increase but little as the jnilk grows richer. 



MTLK. 



223 



FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN DAIRY PROD- 
UCTS. 



Average of American Analyses. (Cooke and Hills.) 




Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric 
Acid. 


Potash. 


Value per 
Ton. 


Whole milk 

Skim-milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk 

Whey 


3 


If 

40 
48 
15 
12 

93 


.19% 

.20 

•15 

•17 

.14 

.04 

.60 


.130 

-.If. 

.036 
.120 


S 2.T7 

2.31 

.66 

i.gS 1 

.84 

• 49 

14.19 









COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM. (Konig.) 





No. of 
Anal- 
yses. 


Water. 


Casein. 


Albu- 
men. 


Butter- 
fat. 


Milk- 
sugar. 


Ash. 


Ewe 

Goat 

Sow 


II 

I 

I 

42 


77-9 
64.1 
70.1 
74.6 


4.9 

5-2 

7.6 
4.0 


3-4 

3-2 

8.0 
13-6 


8.3 
24.5 

3.6 


4.6 

3-9 
2.7 


•9 
3.0 

t1 


Cow 







COMPOSITION OF ASH OF COWS' MILK AND 
COLOSTRUM. 

Cows' Milk. Colostrum. 

Total ash 7 per cent 1.6 per cent 

100 parts of ash will contain : 

Potash 24 " 7 " 

Soda 6 " 6 " 

Lime 23 " 35 " 

Phosphoric acid 28 " 41 •* 

CWorin 13 " 13 «• 



224 DAIRYING. 

A CHAPTER ON MILK TESTING * 

The Babcock milk test is the quick and simple method 
of determining the fat content of milk which has been 
most generally adopted in this country. The test was in- 
vented by Dr. S. M, Babcock, of Wisconsin Agricultural 
Experiment Station, and was first published in July, 1890. 
The following is an outline of the method: 

A known quantity of milk (17.6 cubic centimeters, or 
about I of an ounce) is pipetted off into a graduated test- 
bottle; 17.5 cc. of commercial sulfuric acid, of a specific * 
gravity of 1.82 to 1.83, is then measured out by means of 
a graduated cylinder or an automatic pipette, and added to 
the milk. The two fluids are mixed, and when the curd is 
dissolved, the test-bottles are placed in a centrifugal ma- 
chine and whirled for 5 minutes at a rate of 800-1200 revo- 
lutions per minute, the small hand-machines on the market 
requiring the higher number of revolutions. Boiling hot 
water is then filled into the bottles, by which means the 
liquid fat is brought into the narrow graduated neck of the 
bottles ; after an additional whirling of the bottles for a 
minute, the length of the cclumn of fat is read off in per 
cent. 

The whole process of testing a sample of milk according 
to this method will take less than a quarter of an hour 
when a little skill in manipulation has been reached. 

The various dealers in dairy implements have placed 
Babcock machines on the market in sizes fiom 4- to 60- 
bottle machines, and supply the necessary outfit, as test- 
bottles, pipettes, graduates, and sulfuric acid. There are 
at present three different types of machines — hand-machines 
(friction or cog-wheel machines; the latter ones are to be 
preferred, and have now practically replaced the friction 
machines), steam turbine, and belt-power machines. The 
"Facile" Babcock testers, manufactured by D. H. Burrell 

* The subject of milk testing is treated exhaustively, and detailed direc- 
tions for using the Babcock test are given in Farrington-Woll, Testing 
Milk and its Products^ Mendota Book Co., Madison, Wis. 6th Edition, 
1899, 



MILK. 225 

& Co., Little Falls, N. Y., are, in the author's opinion, the 
best hand-machines on the maiket at the present time. 
Steam turbine machines are to be recommended for factory- 
use; they should always be provided with a speed indicator 
so as to avoid too slow or too rapid whirling; several acci- 
dents have happened where the bottles were unable to 
stand the pressure caused by too rapid whirling. 

In Sharpies' Russian Babcock Tester (a steam turbine 
test r.anufactured by Elgin Mfg. Co., Elgin, 111.) the bot- 
tles used can be filled with hot water while the machine is 
in motion ; the test bottles used are arranged for half the 
usual quantity of milk. 

Points to be watched in making tests by the Babcock 
method : 

The strength of the acid used is very important; its 
specific gravity should not go below 1.82 or above 1.84 ; if 
the acid is somewhat too strong less may be taken, and a 
little more if it is rather weak. It is, however, not possible 
to make a satisfactory test with acid of a specific gravity 
below 1.82. Keep the acid bottle corked when not in use, 
as the acid will otherwise take up moisture from the air. 

In testing separator skim-milk use a somewhat larger 
quantity of acid than usual, and whirl 5 to 6 minutes; this 
will insure a nearly perfect separation of all the fat present 
in such milks. The two-necked so-called Ohlsson bottles 
are recommended for testing separator skim-milk ; the 
results should be increased by .05 per cent with these as 
with other test bottles, in testing separator skim-milk. 

The centrifugal machine should run at a rate of about 
800 to 1000 revolutions per minute; if its diameter is small, 
whirl 1000 or 1200. 

Soft or rain-water is used in filling up the bottle after 
boiling, or hard water may be used if som.e drops of sulfuric 
acid have been added to it before the boiling. 

In adding the acid the bottle should be held at an angle, 
so as to cause the acid to follow the inside of the wall. Mix 
the milk and acid at once, or within a short time, and pro- 
ceed with the test without delay. 

Read off results before the fat begins to crystallize. If 



226 DAIRYING. 

many tests are made at a time, and the room is cold, place 
the bottles in a pail with hot water and keep them warm 
until results are recorded. 

Application of Babcock's Test. — The method maybe used 
to advantage in determining the fat content of full milk, 
skim-milk, buttermilk, whey, cream, condensed milk, and 
cheese. It cannot be recommended for the estimation of 
fat in butter, since the error of analysis in this case is too 
large. In testing separator skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey 
by this method, no reading should be taken lower than one- 
tenth of one per cent. If only a small drop or two of liquid 
fat appears in the neck of the bottles after finished whirling, 
the result is therefore to be put down as .i per cent, instead 
of estimates of .05, and still lower, which are sometimes 
made. (See Bull. No. 52, Wis. Experiment Station.) 

Lactometer. — The Quevenne lactometer, with the ther- 
mometer tube extending into the narrow stem of the instru- 
ment, is recommended for dairy work. In the N. Y. Board 
of Health lactometer, often used, the scale is divided into 
120 divisions, the mark 100 corresponding to a specific 
gravity of 1.029, and that of 120 to a specific gravity of 
1.0348. These lactometer degrees can be converted into 
Quevenne lactometer degrees by multiplying by .29. The 
following table gives the readings of the two scales be- 
tween 60 and 120 on the Board of Health lactometer: 



MILK. 



227 



TABLE SHOWING THE QUEVENNE LACTOMETER 
DEGREES CORRESPONDING TO THE SCALE OF 
LACTOMETERS GRADUATED FROM 60 TO 120. 



N. Y. Bd. 

of Health 

Scale. 


Quevenne 
Scale. 


N. Y. Bd. 

of Health 

Scale. 


Quevenne 
Scale. 


N. Y. Bd. 

of Health 

Scale. 


Quevenne 
Scale. 


60 


17.4 


81 


23-5 


lOI 


293 


61 


17.7 


82 


23.8 


102 


29.6 


62 


18 


83 


24.1 


103 


29.9 


63 


18.3 


84 


24.4 


104 


30.2 


64 


18.6 


85 


24.6 


105 


30.5 


65 


18.8 


86 


24.9 


106 


307 


66 


19. 1 


87 


25.2 


107 


31 


67 


19.4 


88 


25-5 


108 


313 


68 


19.7 


89 


25-8 


109 


31.6 


69 


20 


90 


26. 1 


no 


319 


70 


293 


91 


26.4 


III 


32.2 


71 


20.6 


92 


26.7 


112 


32.5 


72 


20.9 


93 


27 


"3 


328 


73 


21.2 


94 


27-3 


114 


33-1 


74 


21.5 


95 


27.6 


115 


33-4 


75 


21.7 


96 


27.8 


116 


33-6 


76 


22 


97 


28.1 


117 


33 9 


77 


22.3 


98 


28.4 


118 


34-2 


78 


22.6 


99 


28.7 


119 


34-5 


79 


22.9 


100 


29 


120 


34-8 


80 


23.2 











In taking the specific gravity of milk by means of a lac- 
tometer, the temperature of the milk should not vary more 
than 10° either way from 60° F. The following tables 
show the proper corrections for temperature to be made, if 
the milk was either warmer or colder than 60'' F., the tem- 
perature to which the specific gravities of all liquids are 
usually referred. 

In practical work sufficiently accurate corrections for tem- 
perature may generally be made by adding .1 to the lacto- 
meter reading for each degree above 60° F. , and by subtract- 
ing .1 for each degree below 60°; e.g., if the reading at 64° 
is 29.5, it will be about 29.5 -f- .4 = 29.9 at 60°; if 34.0 at 52°, 
it will be about 34.0 — .8 = 33.2 at 60°. By reference to the 
following table we find it is more correctly 33.0. 



228 



DAIRYING. 



rt 

tuo 

Q 

c 

i 

3 

i 

a 


vS 


ooqqo 

d -' cj ro -i 
N (N M N N 


q 
w-vd t^oo d< 


° °. 9 9 ° 

ro rn CO fo c«i 


q 


s 


0^ OnO> 3^ 0> 


0^0«0^0^0^ 


0> 0^ 00\ Ov 


On 


M (N N N N 


(N M N IN 


?r^j^?j>s 




Os 0^00 00 


00 00 00 to 00 


00 00 1>. t^ t^ 




O\0 - f) ro 
M « N N N 


Tj- ino t^oo 

W N N <N f) 


^^^^^. 


t^ 


00 00 00 00 t-. 




t^vO VOVO^O 


»o 


?S S S J? 


CJ CJ N f< N 


2^0 tis,^;^ 

ei m en en en 


^ 


t^ r- r^ t^vo 
" N r^ 

M N (N N 


(N N N W M 


N rr) fi ro ro 


"? 


K 


VO^O^ VOVO 


vo 10 10 in l/^ 






•^ 2 Ji ~ J? 

IH M (S N 


Tj- u-!\o t^oo 


o- " " f;; 

c^ en en en en 


;?; 


.otoiouiin 


10 ■+ '^ ■♦ 'J- 


en en en en ^ 




" <N f«l 
M M N « 


N n" w W N 


On M d (^ 
PI ro COro ro 


m 




-<*■ ro fO ro fO 


N W W H M 





S^gJ^Sf? 


T invo t>.oo 
w w M N 


ON M N r^ 
N CO ro ro r^ 


J?, 




(^, N (N P) N 


M H M 


ON 


^S S ?5 ?? 


^t^^S-'S 


a en en en m 


m 
en 


.0 


en cnmm m 


N « N M M 


H On ON 


00 


S^gflSfT 


jrj^^jT's 


On H M p) 
p) ro CT) m ro 


s> 


^iii^ 


M M M 

Tj- mvo r--oo 

« N (N N <N 


ON ONOO P>. 

ma 


vq 


^ 


N f) N N M 

C> d « « ro 
►■ N N N N 


M M H q 

Tj- lAVD t^OO 
N N N N N 


onoo t>.vq »o 
go' d- d ►- pi 


«n 


-!f 


o^ d M fi IT-, 

M N « N N 


q q^ ON 
■<j- »^vd^ t^ 

« (N IN N 


00 tvvq «o Tj- 

00 ON d M pi 
p) pj m ro m 


fn 




H 


0\ 0^00 00 
C4 N N N M 


t^vo ";> f "p 

00 ON d i-< pi 
P) N m ro ro 


en 


VO 


00000 


0^ O- O^OOOO 


t^NO >o ^ rrj 


S 


s^sss s 


en Tf u^vo t^ 
f) N N (N N 


00 ON - P< 
(i e^ en enen 


^ 


oo-ON 


00 00 00 t-^ t^ 


NO in ■* (^ p) 


q 


0- M N 
i-i r, N N N 


en -<^ in\o 1^ 
M N « N 


p) n f<i ro r<i 


s 

o 
rt 


bo 
c 
•S 
<u 


W C^ S <N « 


N N N <M 


m en fo fo CO 


fO 



MILK. 



229 



1 

c 

a 

a 
U. 
<n 

1 

"o 

3 

1 


K 


vovo t^ K fv 


00 00 0> 0» 


M M N M fn 


t.» 


2 i5 T? 


M N ro T^ lO 


vo t^OO O M 

PI p) pj « ro 


?,?!;?;;^^ 


- § £ 


r^ 


loioioovo 
c3 c3 cTn N 


vo r-. t>.00 On 
vd t^oo o> d 


ON M M 

M m 4 invo 
ro o-, m ro fO 


t^ 




(^ 


fn <*■ .* Ti- lo 


vo vo vo t^ r^ 


00 00 OV OV 





a <c « 


" M rrj >if lO 
M N IN N « 


^JT'SS^?, 


M CI ro T^vo 
m ro m m fo 


- 


N ro cn m ro 


^ThrMOtr, 


vo vo (K f^oo 


vo 


m 


N N W N W 


^JT'SS^^ 


►- pj ro M- lO 


ti 


M N N N N 

M N ro 4 >0 
M N N M (N 


N ro m -.«- ■* 


«o invo vo vo 
M pi r^ tJ- in 


vd 


the reading o 
e and the !a 
ed lactomete 





H M M W 


M p) p) P) (n 


m Tj- T^ m m 


in 


■- N ro Tf >o 
W N M n N 


^JT'SS^^ 


ro m ro ?! ro 


^ 


vg^ 


O 


O « M « P« 


PI PI ro m m 




o within io° from 6o° F. Take 
first vertical column of the tabl 
tical columns meet is the correct 


O IN ro -*■ in 

N O W W M 


^^'SS"^ 


?^^?^^;^ 


^ 


tvOO 00 00 OV 


0\ w 


M H N PI PI 


PI 
vd 


O M (N ro Tt 


m 1^00 o- o 
p< PI PI N ro 


cn ro f^ ro cn 




VO t^ r^ t^ t^ 


t^OO 00 00 On 


OVO- O 


„ 


8?:?isr? 


J^^^^g^ 


ro m to m ro 


% 


S 


u-ivo vo vo vo 


VO t^ t^ f- t«> 
lAvd t^co OV 


00 00 O Ov OV 


OV 

en 


vS' 


6 M pi ro tJ- 


lOVO vo vo vo 

lovd t^oo ON 


t^ t>. t^OO CO 

1-1 PI ro ■* 
M m m fo ro 


00 


ure of the milk t 
he former in the 
orizontal and ver 


vo 


6 - "f* rr^-^ 

« N M N M 


-^ in IT) u^ in 


in invo vo vo 


vo 


invo r~-oo Ov 

P< (N .N PI P< 


M PI m Tf 

re ro m m 1?; 


Jn 


vS^ 


N m (^ M fO 


fo ro rf .<f -^ 




m 


ng the temperat 

the milk ; find t 

gure where the h 

ed reading, 31.9. 


<N P) M N N 


JT^Jr^SS^ 


M PI tn -^ 


vo 


N (N N IN P) 


PI N rofnm 


ro fO ro PO ro 


i^ 


8;;s J?^ 


•nvo t^oo OV 

PI M PI PI w 


M PI m M- 
CO r<i m ro m 


vo 






^ P« PI PI N 


■n 


Directions.— Bri 
of the temperature of 
row of figures ; the fi 
31.0 at 67° F.; correct 


« P) rn -^ 


inNO tvco Ov 

« PI PI PI N 


O ►" PI (n ..I- 
CO CO fo CO f^ 


5 


ii 

3 
u 


-• N 1^ ■>^ 
pt Pt p« p< P( 


i^^S-'Sg^ 


O « N m •* 
CO fo fi o ro 


!J; 



230 DAIRYING. 

CAIiCULiATION OF TOTAL, SOLIDS OF 3IILK. 

The relation existing between the various components of 
the milk is such as to make possible the calculation of the 
percentage of solids not fat, and total solids, in a sample of 
milk when the fat-content and the specific gravity (lactom- 
eter reading) of the milk are known. Several formulas 
have been worked out by chemists in different parts of the 
world, by the application of which the total solids may be 
calculated from the percentage of fat and the specific grav- 
ity of the milk. We give here Babcock's formula, pub- 
lished in the twelfth report of Wisconsin Experiment 
Station. 

Solids not fat = I — ^^""^ ~ r— i| X (lOO - /) 2.5, 

\ioo — 1.0753^/ ' -/ / -" 

where s — specific gravity of the milk and/" per cent of fat 

found. When s and /are known the per cent of solids not 

fat in the milk maybe calculated by means of this formula. 

In order to avoid making the lengthy calculations in every 

case, tables for solids not fat are given on the following 

pages; results obtained by the formula given above, or 

by means of the following tables, will come within a couple 

of tenths from the actual percentages present, when 

reasonable care is taken in the determinations of fat and 

specific gravity (or lactometer reading). 

Short formulas. The following formulas for solids not 

fat and for total solids are derived from the data given in 

the following tables. L = lactometer reading at 60° F. 

(specific gravity X 1000— 1000); /= per cent of fat in 

milk. 

Solids not fat = — |- .2/ 
4 

Total solids = — + 1.2/. 
4 _ ^. 



MILK. 231 

Rule : To find per cent of solids not fat, add tzuo tenths o/ 
the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lactometer reading. 

To find per cent of total solids, add one and two tenths times 
the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lactometer reading. 

Results obtained by using the short formulas will agree 
very closely with those derived from the general formula, 
or from the tables published below, and may be safely 
relied upon in practical work. 

The tables cover a range of .o to 6.0 per cent of fat, 
and from 26 to 36 lactometer reading. If intermediate 
values for /and L are at hand, corrections in the percent 
of solids not fat found may easily be made, with .02 per 
cent for every tenth of one per cent of fat, and .25 per 
cent for every lactometer degree. Exa?nple : Given /" = 
3.67 per cent and L = 32.5. By referring to the table we 
find that /=3.6 and Z = 32 will give 8.73 per cent of 
solids not fat; correction for fat-content, .01 per cent (3.67 
being nearer 3.65 than 3.70), and for lactometer reading, 
12 per cent; corrected per cent solids not fat, 8.86. 



232 



DAIRYIKG. 



TABLE SHOWING PER CENT OF SOLIDS NOT FAT, 

Corresponding- to Quevenne Lactometer Readings and 

Per Cent of Fat. (Babcock.) 



Per 






Lactometer Readings at 60° Fahr. 






Ct.of 
















1 
























Fat. 


























26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 
8.00 


33 
T25 


34 
8.50 


35 


36 
9.00 


.0 


6 50 


6.75 


7.00 


7.25 


7-50 


7-75 


.1 


6.52 


6.77 


7.02 


7.27 


7-52 


7-77 


8.02 


8.27 


8.52 


8.77 


9.02 


.2 


6.54 


6.79 


7.04 


7.29 


7-54 


7-79 


8.04 


8.29 


8.54 


8.79 


9.04 


.3 


6 56 


6.81 


7.06 


7-31 


7-56 


7.81 


8.06 


8.31 


8.56 


8 81 


9.06 


•4 


6.58 


6.83 


7.08 


7-33 


7.58 


7.83 


8.08 


8.33 


8.58 


8.83 


9.08 


.5 


6.60 


6.85 


7.10 


7-35 


7.60 


7-85 


8.10 


8 35 


8.60 


8.85 


9.10 


.6 


6.62 


6.87 


7.12 


7 37 


7.62 


7.87 


8.12 


8.37 


8.62 


8.87 


9.12 


.7 


6.64 


6.89 


7-M 


7-39 


7.64 


7.89 


8.14 


8.39 


8.64 


8.89 


9.14 


.8 


6.66 


6 91 


7.16 


7.41 


7.66 


7.91 


8.16 


8.41 


8.66 


8.91 


9.16 


.9 


6.68 


6.93 


7.18 


7-43 


7.68 


7-93 


8.18 


8.43 


8.68 


8.93 


9.18 


1.0 


6.70 


6.95 


7.20 


7-45 


7.70 


7-95 


8.20 


8.45 


8.70 


8.95 


9.20 


i.i 


6.72 


6.97 


7.22 


7-47 


7.72 


7-97 


8.22 


8.47 


8.72 


8.97 


9.22 


1.2 


6.74 


6.99 


7.24 


7-49 


7-74 


7-99 


8.24 


8.49 


8.74 


8.99 


9.24 


1-3 


6.76 


7.01 


7.26 


7-51 


7.76 


8.01 


8.26 


8.51 


8.76 


9.01 


9.26 


1-4 


6.78 


7-03 


7.28 


7-53 


7.78 


8.03 


8.28 


8.53 


8.78 


9 03 


9.28 


1-5 


6.80 


705 


7 30 


7-55 


7.80 


8.05 


8.30 


8.55 


8.80 


905 


9-30 


1.6 


6.82 


7.07 


7-32 


7.57 


7.82 


8 07 


8.32 


8.57 


8.82 


9.07 


9-32 


1-7 


6.84 


7.09 


7 34 


7-59 


7.84 


8.09 


8.34 


8.59 


8.84 


9.09 


9-34 


1.8 


6.86 


7.11 


7.36 


7.61 


7 86 


8.TI 


8.36 


8.61 


8.86 


9. II 


9-37 


1.9 


6.88 


7-13 


7.38 


7.63 


7.88 


8.13 


8.38 


8.63 


8.88 


9 14 


9-39 


2.0 


6.90 


7-15 


7.40 


7.65 


7.90 


8.15 


8.40 


8.66 


8.91 


9 16 


9.41 


2.1 


6.92 


7.17 


7.42 


7.67 


7.92 


8.17 


8.42 


8.68 


8. 03 


9.18 


9-43 


2.2 


6.94 


7.19 


7-44 


7.69 


7-94 


8.19 


8.44 


8.70 


8.95 


9.20 


9-45 


23 


6.96 


7.21 


7.46 


7.71 


7.96 


8.21 


8.46 


8.72 


8.97 


9.22 


9-47 


2.4 


6.98 


7-23 


7.48 


7-73 


798 


8.23 


8.48 


8.74 


8.99 


9.24 


9.49 


2-5 


7.00 


7.25 


7- SO 


7-75 


8.00 


8.25 


8.50 


8.76 


9.01 


9 26 


9-5T 


2.6 


7.02 


7.27 


7-52 


7-77 


8.02 


8.27 


8.52 


8.78 


9-03 


9.28 


9-53 


2.7 


7.04 


7.29 


7-54 


7.79 


8.04 


8.29 


8.54 


8.80 


905 


9.30 


9.55 


2.8 


7.06 


7-31 


7.56 


7.8t 


8.06 


8.31 


8.57 


8.82 


9.07 


932 


9-57 


2.9 


7.08 


7-33 


7.58 


7.83 


8.08 


8.33 


8.59 


8.84 


9.09 


9-34 


9-59 


3-0 


7.10 


7-35 


7.60 


7.85 


8.10 


8.36 


8.61 


8.86 


9. II 


9 3^ 


9.61 


3.1 


7.12 


7-37 


7.62 


7.87 


8.13 


8.38 


8.63 


8.88 


913 


9-38 


9.64 


3-2 


7.14 


7.39 


7.64 


7.89 


8.15 


8.40 


8.65 


8.90 


915 


9.41 


9.66 


3-3 


7.16 


7.41 


7.66 


7.92 


8.17 


8.42 


8.67 


8.92 


9.18 


9-43 


9.68 


3-4 


7.18 


7-43 


7-69 


7-94 


8.19 


8.44 


8.69 


8.94 


9.20 


9-45 


9.70 


3-5 


7.20 


7-45 


7.71 


7.96 


8.21 


8.46 


8.71 


8.96 


9.22 


9-47 


9.72 


3.6 


7.22 


7.48 


7-73 


7.98 


8.23 


8.48 


8.73 


8.98 


9.24 


9.49 


9-74 


3-7 


7.24 


7.50 


7-75 


8.00 


8.25 


8 50 


8.75 


9.00 


9.26 


9-51 


9.76 


3.8 


7.26 


752 


7-77 


8.02 


8.27 


8.52 


8.77 


9.02 


9.28 


9-53 


9.78 


3-9 


7.28 


7-54 


7-79 


8.04 


8.29 


8.54 


8.79 


9.04 


9-3° 


9-55 


9,80 


4.0 


7-3° 


7.56 


7.81 


8.06 


8.3t 


8.56 


8.81 


9.06 


9-32 


9.57 


9-83 


4.1 


7-32 


7.58 


7-83 


8.08 


8.33 


8.58 


8.83 


9.09 


9-34 


9-59 


9.85 


4.2 


7-34 


7.60 


7-85 


8.10 


8.35 


8 60 


8.85 


9.11 


9-36 


9.62 


9-87 


4-3 


7.36 


7.62 


7.87 


8.12 


8.37 


8.62 


8.88 


9-13 


9-38 


9.64 


9.89 


4-4 


7.38 


7.64 


78Q 


8.14 


8.39 


8.64 


8.90 


915 


9.40 


9.66 


9.91 



Per 

Ct.of 

Fat. 



MILK. 



233 



TABLE FOR SOLIDS NOT FAT— {Continued). 



Per 


Lactometer Readings at 6o° Fahr. 


Per 


Ct.of 
























Ct. of 


Fat. 


26 


27 

7.66 


28 

7.91 


29 

8.16 


30 
~4~z 


31 
8.66 


32 
8.92 


33 
9.17 


34 
9.42 


35 
9.68 


36 
9-93 


Fat. 


4-5 


7.40 


4 5 


4.6 


7-43 


7.b« 


7-93 


8.18 


8-43 


8.68 


8.94 


9.19 


9-44 


9.70 


9-9.') 


4.6 


^■l 


7-45 


7.70 


7-95 


8.20 


8.45 


8.70 


8.9b 


9.21 


9-4ti 


9.72 


9-97 


4-7 


4-« 


7-47 


7.72 


7-97 


8.22 


8.47 


8.72 


8.98 


9-23 


9.48 


9-74 


9.99 


4.8 


4-9 


7«49 


7-74 


7 99 


8.24 


8.49 


8.74 


9.00 


9-25 


9.50 


9.7b 


10.01 


4-9 


■;.o 


7.51 


7.76 


8.01 


8. 26 


8.51 


8.76 


9.02 


9.27 


952 


9.78 


10.03 


5.0 


5-1 


7-53 


7-78 


8.0, 


8.28 


8., S3 


8.79 


9- 05 


9 29 


9.54 


9.80 


10.05 


S-i 


5-2 


7-55 


7.80 


8.05 


8.30 


8.55 


8.81 


9.06 


9.31 


9-56 


9.82 


10.07 


5.2 


5-3 


7-S7 


782 


8.07 


.S.32 


8.,S7 


8.83 


9 08 


9-3^ 


9.S8 


9.84 


10.09 


5-3 


5-4 


7-59 


7-84 


8.C9 


8.34 


8.60 


8.85 


9.10 


9-36 


9.61 


9.86 


10. II 


5-4 


5-5 


7.61 


7.86 


8. II 


8.^6 


8.62 


8.87 


0.12 


9.^8 


9-63 


9.88 


10. 1 3 


5-5 


5-6 


7.63 


7.88 


8.13 


8.39 


8.64 


8.89 


9-15 


9.40 


9.65 


9.90 


10.15 


5-6 


5-7 


7-b5 


7.90 


8.15 


8. 41 


8.66 


8.91 


9.17 


9.42 


9.67 


9.92 


10.17 


5-7 


s.« 


7.67 


7.92 


8.17 


8.43 


8.68 


8.94 


9.19 


9.44 


9.69 


9.94 


10.19 


S.8 


5-9 


7-69 


7-94 


8.20 


8.45 


8.70 


8.96 


9.21 


9 46 


9.71 


9.96 


10.22 


5-9 


6.0 


7.71 


7.96 


8.22 


8.47 


8.72 


8 98 


9-23 


9.48 


9-73 


9.98 


10.24 


6.0 



Correction for Hundredths of Per cent of Fat, 



Difference. 




•25 


.26 


.01 


•03 


.03 


.02 


•03 


.05 


.03 


.08 


.08 


.04 


.10 


.10 


•OS 


•13 


•»3 


.06 


• 15 


.16 


.07 


.18 


.18 


.08 


.20 


.21 


.09 


•23 


•23 



CALCULATION OF SP. GR. OF MILK SOLIDS. 

(Fleischmann.) 



Sp. gr. of milk solids 



^ = 



looj — 100 



where s — sp. gr. of milk, t = solids of milk. In pure 
whole milk 6" varies but little, viz., between 1.25 and 1.34. 
When 6" comes above 1.34, the milk is suspicious ; if above 
1.40, it has been skimmed (see page 275(5). 



234 



DAIRYIl^G. 





















ta 
















• cl 








.^ -Sij 








^'*-' '*^ *J 








. ::: <j ^ a 








^^•6-° •?&£ 








vh ^ 1 o o c 




V 




■^'^ ^ T! t! '^ 




s 


■S 


^^■-i-s ^SS 




V 

u 


b 


Sail li 


C^ o' 

























w 










*j '. 










1 


1 


c • 






eg 
















a 


. 


c 




O 'n O * 






S 


rt 


U 




(N M C4 






u 


tu 












u 




^ 










;M 




<-: 
















5-S 


c 














6 


U 




0^ 


• 11 








s 

to 


H° 


^ 






ao 

C/5 ^ 












__^. 














n 












^ 


,*{ 




in lo r>. 


to 






^ 


U 




CO CO m ro fO M CO 


CO 


com 


^' 




Oh 












c 




O^ 00 o\ 0\ 0\ 0> O' 


CTi 


• (> Ox 


i 


So 


s, 








1 I 1 




^ 




rr. 






r2 oi 

5t: 


c 










^ 




. ^ Om lo be 1 


to 




o'^ 






'• CO N N N M 




f2 o 












Ph 






























■ : : 










' CO 




; 


* * 










. . 










"5 

:a 




. : 


tn ^ 










is 










• 3 




• • 3 • 




: H 




: 3 




V 
03 


_c 


; 


•3 




■ • 3-1 C i: 


j 


^ It 


it 


•— » 








sill il 

rtJS .y .£.2 


: c« ^ o • >» 






5. 


^ C 


;Q c 


.5 


S^ 


IS 


^ 


:2 


: ^ 


;z 


^ 


c 


> 



MILK, 



235 



a 



fch 



« a 
a *j o 



— 3 w 

s w w n 
H c c-_5 

00(/3 






a a " 

« 'i V 

i3-a 



OV8. 

^ 2" 



. O 
C/) 






> 








3 




cr 








4> 




J3 








>. 
















C 




c4 




3 




cr 


rn 


c 




•" 


3 


V 






o 






•^ 


o< 


X! 


>» 










^ 


•a 






S 


S 










r. 


"O 




*^ ?n 




(« ^ 


•n 








Oi3i5 










^-l 


rt bn 


OX! c 


•a 


JS 






o 




S.^" 


y 


J?? 


^ 


<«J2 




Ido 




o e 






o 


-c ^ 






T3 


2^ 


rt 


^■^ 


^ 




o 


(« 


>,ji^G 






^ 


a G 


^ 


V M 






est: 


« 


"C^ 



si 



o q 



O\00 o> 






• CO 

F 

c.SJ 
c.t; 






o o o o o o o 



"too hxiq 









rt 2 



mCQCQUQOCLhC/) 

C«M^ - ^ - 

o o- 



^ij'- 



rt rt u 



em 



ci:: 

rt <u 

a^ 



230 DAIRYING. 

ADULTERATION OF MILK? 

The legal standards adopted in the different States of the 
Union determine the limits for fat or solids, below which 
the milk offered for sale must not fall. Where no control 
sample can be taken of a suspected sample of milk, calcula- 
tions of the extent of the adulteration practised are made 
on basis of the legal standard in each State. Whenever 
possible, a control sample should be secured on the prem- 
ises of the suspected party, and subjected to analysis. If 
the control sample contains appreciably less fat or solids 
not fat than did the suspected sample, the latter was 
skimmed or watered, or both skimmed and watered.* 

Skimming. — I. If a sample is skimmed, the following for- 
mula will give the number of pounds of fat abstracted from 
ICO lbs. of milk : 

Fat abstracted = x = legal standard for fat —/, . (I) 

/"being the per cent of fat in the suspected sample. 

In this and following formulas the percentages found in 
the control samples, if such are at hand, are always to be 
substituted for the legal standards. 

II. The following formula will give the per cent of fat 
abstracted, calculated on the total quantity of fat originally 
found in the milk: 

X = ICO — ;; -—z J— (II) 

leg. stand, for fat 

Watering. — I. If a sample is watered, the calculations 
are most conveniently based on the percentage of solids 
not fat in the milk: 
Per cent extraneous water in milk 

s X lOO 



= X = lOO — 



leg. stand, for solids not fat' 



. (HI) 



s being the per cent of solids not fat in the suspected 
sample. 

Example.— A sample contains 8.5 per cent of solids not 
fat ; if the legal standard for solids not fat be 9 per cent, 

100 '^ ^ '^^ = 5.6, will give the per cent of extraneous 

9 
water in the suspected sample of milk. 



* See Farrington-Woll, Testing Milk and its Products, 6th Ed., pp. 



MILK. 237 



8.5 X TOO ..,,.. 

100 — = 5.6, will give the per cent of extraneous 

water in the suspected sample of milk. 

II. Watering of milk may also be expressed in per cent 
of water added to the original milk, by formula IV : 

Per cent water added to original milk 

_ _ 100 X leg. stand, for solids not fat 



s 



(IV) 



In the example given above, — 100 = 5.9 per cent 

8.5 
of water was added to the original milk. 

Watering and Skimming. — If a sample has been both 
watered and skimmed, the extent of watering is ascertained 
by means of formula III ; and the fat abstracted found ac- 
cording to the following formula : 

Per cent fat abstracted 

, , . leg. stand, for solids not fat , ,,,, 
= ;»: — leg. stand, for fat 2 Xy^ (V) 

Example. — A sample of milk contains 2.4 per cent of fat 
and 8.1 per cent solids not fat; then 

8.1 X TOO 
extraneous water in milk = 100 = 10 per cent; 



9 X 2.4 
fat abstracted = 3 = .33 per cent. 

o. I 

100 lbs. of the milk contained 10 lbs. of extraneous water 
and .33 lb. of fat had been skimmed from it. 

1^ RANGES OF THE VARIATIONS IN THE COM- 
POSITION OF HERD MILK. (Fleischmann.) 

The specific gravity (expressed in degrees) may go above 
or below the yearly average by more than 10 per cent. 

The per cent of fat may go above or below the yearly 
average by more than 30 per cent. 

The per cent of total solids may go above or below the 
yearly average by more than 14 per cent. 

The per cent of solids not fat may go above or below the 
yearly average by more than 10 per cent. 



238 



DAIRYING. 



TABLE FOR CONVERTING QUARTS OF MILK 
INTO POUNDS. 



Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


1 


2. IS 


29 


62.3 


57 


122.4 


85 


182.5 


3 


4.3 


30 


64.4 


58 


124.5 


86 


184.6 


3 


6.4 


31 


66. s 


59 


126.6 


87 


186.8 


4 


8.6 


32 


68.7 


60 


128.8 


88 


188.9 


5 


10.7 


33 


70.8 


61 


130.9 


89 


191.0 


6 


12.9 


34 


73 -o 


62 


133-1 


90 


193-2 


7 


15 


35 


75-1 


63 


135-2 


91 


195-3 


8 


17.2 


36 


77-3 


64 


137-4 


92 


197-5 


9 


19-3 


37 


79-4 


65 


139-5 


93 


199-6 


lO 


21. 5 


38 


81.6 


66 


141.7 


94 


201 8 


II 


23.6 


39 


83-7 


67 


143-8 


95 


203.9 


12 


25.8 


40 


85.9 


68 


146.0 


96 


206.1 


13 


27.9 


41 


88.0 


69 


148.1 


97 


208.2 


J4 


30.1 


42 


90.2 


70 


150.3 


98 


210.4 


15 


32.2 


43 


92-3 


71 


152.4 


99 


212.5 


t6 


34-3 


44 


94-5 


72 


154.6 


100 


214.7 


17 


36.5 


45 


96.6 


73 


156.7 


200 


429.3 


18 


38.6 


46 


98.7 


74 


158.8 


300 


644.0 


19 


40.8 


47 


100.9 


75 


161 


400 


858.6 


20 


42.9 


48 


103.0 


76 


163.1 


500 


1073.3 


21 


45-1 


49 


105.2 


^2 


165.3 


600 


1288 


22 


47.2 


50 


107-3 


78 


167.4 


700 


1502.6 


23 


49.4 


51 


109.5 


79 


169.6 


800 


1717-3 


24 


51-5 


52 


III. 6 


80 


171.7 


QOO 


193' 9 


25 


53 7 


53 


113.8 


81 


173-9 


1000 


2:46.6 


26 


55.8 


54 


"5-9 


82 


176.0 






27 


58.0 




118.1 


83 


178.2 






28 


60.1 


56 


120.2 


84 


180.3 







TABLE FOR CONVERTING POUNDS OF MILK 
INTO QUARTS. 



Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


I 


•47 


29 


13-5 


57 


26.6 


sT' 


39-6 


2 


-93 


30 







58 


27.0 


86 


40 


I 


3 


1.40 


31 




4 


59 


27-s 


87 


40 


5 


4 


1.86 


32 




9 


60 


28.0 


88 


4' 





5 


2.. 33 


33 




4 


6i 


28.4 


89 


41 


s 


6 


2 80 


34 




8 


62 


28.9 


90 


41 


9 


7 


3-26 


35 


16 


3 


63 


29.4 


91 


42 


4 


8 


3 73 


36 


16 


8 


64 


29.8 


02 


42 


9 


9 


4.19 


37 


17 


2 


65 


30-3 


93 


43 


3 


10 


4 66 


38 


^l 


7 


66 


30.8 


94 


43 


8 


11 


5-13 


39 


18 


2 


67 


31.2 


95 


44 


3 


12 


5-59 


40 


18 


6 


68 


31-7 


96 


44 


7 


13 


6.06 


41 


19 


I 


69 


32 2 


97 


45 


2 


14 


6.52 


42 


19 


6 


70 


32.6 


98 


45 


7 


IS 


6. 99 


43 


20 





71 


33 1 


99 


46 


I 


16 


7.46 


44 


20 


5 


72 


33-6 


100 


46 


6 


17 


7.92 


45 


21 





73 


34 


200 


9^ 


2 


18 


8.39 


46 


21 


4 


74 


34 5 


300 


139 


8 


19 


8.85 


^l 


21 


9 


75 


35 -o 


400 


186 


4 


20 


9-32 


48 


22 


4 


76 


35 4 


500 


233 





21 


9-79 


49 


22 


8 


77 


35 9 


eoo 


279 


6 


22 


10.3 


50 


23 


3 


78 


36.3 


700 


3--6 


2 


23 


10.7 


51 


23 


8 


79 


36.8 


800 


372 


8 


24 


11.2 


52 


24 


2 


80 


37-3 


900 


419 


4 


25 


11 7 


53 


24 


7 


8i 


37-7 


1000 


466 





26 


12. 1 


54 


25 


2 


82 


38.2 






27 


12.6 


55 


25 


6 


83 


38.7 






28 


,3-1 


56 


26 


1 


84 


39-1 







CREAM. 



239 



III. CREAM. 
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CREAM. (Konig.) 





Mean of 43 
Analyses. 


Minimum. 


Maximum. 


Water 

Fat 


68.82 

22.66 

376 

4-23 

■53 


22.83 

15.19 

•63 

•59 

.11 


83-23 

29.93 

7.88 


Milk Suc-ar 


5.52 


Ash 


2.50 


Specific gravity, i.oio. 


ICO. 00 





PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF DAIRY 
PRODUCTS. (Konig.) 





'0^ 


« 




C<5 


rt 




Specific 




A~ f 


rt 


4^ 


;5 c 3 


TZ 3 




Gravity. 




^<^. 


^ 


k 


u«-^ 


S^ 


< 




Skim -milk, grav- 
















ity creaming . .. 
Centrifugal skim- 


S6 


90-43 


.87 


3.26 


4-74 


.70 


1-0357 
















milk 


7 


90.60 


-31 


3-06 


5-29 


-74 


1.0350 


Buttermilk 


57 


90. 12 


1.09 


4-03 


4.04 


•72 


1.0348 


Whey 


46 


93 -3« 


-32 


.86 


4-79 


.65 


I .0272 


Preserved milk . . . 


4 


87 97 


3.21 


3-34 


4-74 


.74 


I. 0313 


Condensed milk. 
















(no sugar added) 


36 


58.99 


12.42 


11. 92 


14.49 


2.18 




Condensed milk, 
















(sugar added). . 


64 


25.61 


10.35 


11.79 


50.06* 


2.19 




Scherff's condens- 
















ed milk .. ... 


5 


72.87 


6.6j 


8.20 


10.63 


1.68 


Lactic Alco- 


Koumiss (from 














acid. hoi. 


mares' milk) . . 


43 


90.44 


1.46 


2.24 


1.77 


.42 


.91 I. 91 


Koumiss (from 
















cows' milk). .. 


II 


89.20 


1.83 


2.66 


4-09 


-43 


-55 i-M 


Kephir 


■27. 


91.21 


I 44 


3-49 


2.41 


.68 


1.02 .75 



* 13.84 per cent milk-sugar, 36.22 per cent cane-sugar. 



240 



DAIRYING. 





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343 



DAIRYT15rG. 



LIST OV HAND AND POWER CREAM-SEPA- 
KATORS ON THE AMERICAN MARKET, 1900. 



Name. 



. Hand or Dairy Separators 

DeLavai ''BaSy'" or ''Dairy'' 

Crea m-sepa ra tors. 

Humming-bird (old-style 

" strap'") ... 

Do., improved " Crank". 
Baby No. i (hollow bowl) 
" No. I (disk bowl) — 
" No. 2, improved 

" Iron-stool " 

"No.2,improv.highframe 
'^ No. 3, improved high 

frame. . 

Dairy Turbine 



Capacity 
per Hour. 



2. U. S. Cream-separators. 

No. g. Improved U. S. Sep. 
No. 8. " " *' 

No. 7. " " " 

No. 6. " " " 

No. 5. " " " 

3. The Empire Cream-sepa- 

rators. 

The Empire Record 

Empire Crown No. i 

Improved Mikado .. .... 

Empire Crown No. 2 

Empire No. 5 

Empire Crown No. 4 

4. Sharpies Farm Cream-sepa 

rators. 

Little Giant No. i 

" No. 2 

Safety Hand No. i 

" " No. 2 

The WHS Hand Separa- 
tor 

5. Victoria Separators (three 

styles) 

The Empress Separator. .. 

6. The Eclipsf Crenm-separator 

Nos. 0-5 (6 styles) 

7. The Knceland Omega Hand 

Separator. 
No. I Jr.— No. 4 Jr. (5 styles) 

8. American Cream- separator 

No. I 

No. 2 

No. 3 



lbs. 



175 

225 
150 

325 

450 
450 

850 
850 



150-175 
225-250 
275-300 
350-400 
450-500 



no 

165 

27s 
350 
550 

650 



Retail 
Price. 



300 
600 



300 
600 



100-350 
750 



80-550 
260-600 



250 
350 
600 



Manufacturer 
or Agency. 



$50 1 
65 



125 I 

725 j 

200 I 

225 J 

50 1 

65 I 

85 } 

100 I 

125 J 



40 "1 

60 I 
85* I 



175* J 



125 

200 



75 J 

80-125 
225 



65-150 



65 
100 
150 



The De Laval Sep- 
arator Co., N. Y. 
City. 



Vermont Farm Ma- 
chine Co., Bel- 
lows Falls, Vt. 



U. S. Butter Ex- 
tractor Co., New- 
ark, N. J. 



P. M. Sharpies, 
West Chester, Pa. 



Dairymen's Supply 
Co., Philadelphia, 
Pa. 

The C. L. Chap- 
man Separator 
Works, Erie, Pa. 

Kneeland Crystal 
Creamery Co., 
Lansing, Mich. 



Am. Separator Co., 
Bainbridge, N. Y. 



Complete. 



CREAM. 243 

HAND AND POWER CREAM-SEPARATORS— (C^«.). 



Name. 


Capacity 


Retail 


Manufacturer 


per Hour. 


Price. 


or Agency. 


Hand or Dairy Separators. 








{Continued). 


lbs. 






Q. Davis Cream-separators. 




I 


Davis Cream Sepa- 


4 styles 


200-800 

j 200-250 
1 .350-400 


$75-200 < 

85 I 
125 \ 


rator Co., Chicago, 


lo. The Reid Hand Separators, 
2 styles 


111. 
A. H. Reid, Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 




Ti. Alexattdra Creain-separa- 
tors. 
No 12 








160 
250 


50 
70 V 


R. A. Lister & Co., 


No. iil^ 


Ltd., Montreal, 


No.8 


300 


80 


Canada. 


12. Melotte Creatn-sef>ara 








tors.* 








No. I 


350 


100 \ 


R, A. Lister «& Co., 




No. 2 


450 
700 
850 


185 ' 


Ltd., Montreal, 
Canada. 


No. 4 


No. 5 


B. Power Separators. 




I. Alpha Separators. 








Alpha No. I. Belt Power.. 


3000 


500 1 




No. 9, •• " .. 


4500 


750 1 




" No.i, Steam Turbint 


3000 


525 


The De Laval Sep- 


No. 2, •• 


4500 


800 i 
350 1 


arator Co., N. Y. 


Alpha Acme, Belt Power.. 


1750 


City. 


" bteam Turbine 


1750 


375 




Standard, Belt Power .. .. 


1200 


. 250 ! 




Turbine...., 


1200 


275 J 




2. Russian Steam Separators. 








The Standard Russian 


1200-1500 


350 1 




The Imperial " ... 


2000-2500 


500 1 




Standard Belt Separators. 




1 




The Standard Belt 


1200-1500 


300 1 




The Imperial " 

Sharpies Tubular Sepa- 


2000-2500 


500 1 


P. M. Sharpies, 
West Chester, Pa. 


rators. 








Sharpies Tubular No. g 


900 


250 1 




No. 25... 


2500 


525 




" " No. 40. . . 


4000 


750 




No. 60... 


6000 


950 J 




3. U. S. Cream-separators. 








No. Improved U. S. Sepa- 
rator, Belt . . 


j- 2600-3000 


500 




No. Improved U. S. Sepa- 
rator, Steam Turbine .. 
No. I Improved U. S. Sepa- 


>■ 2600-3000 
\ 2300-2500 
[• 2300-2500 


625 
400 \ 


Vermont Farm Ma- 
chine Co., Bel- 


No. I Improved U. S. Sepa- 




lows Falls, Vt. 


rator, Steam Turbine . . 


525 




No. 2 Improved U. S. Sepa- 
rator, Belt 


\ I 000- I 300 


350 





Sold in Canada only. 



244 DAIRYING. 

HAND AND POWER CREAM-SEPARATORS— (C«>«.). 



Name. 


Capacity 
per Hour. 


Retail 
Price. 


Manufacture, 
or Agency. 


Power Separators— (C^>«^V). 

3. U. S. Crea7n-separators. 

{Continued). 

No. 2 Improved U. S. Sepa- 
rator, Steam Turbine 

No. 3 Improved U. S. Sepa- 
rator (high frame) 

No. 3 U. S. Cream-separa- 
tor (low frame) 

No. 3 Improved U. S. Sepa- 
rator, Steam Turbine... 

4. Reid Improved Danish Sep- 

arator 

The Reid Steam Turbine 
Separator 

5. Columbia Cream-separators 

(three styles) 

6. Tke Empire Cream-sepa- 

rators. 

Empire " 12," Belt Power. 

Empire " 12," Steam Tur- 
bine . ... 


lbs. 

I 000- I 300 
650-700 
650-700 
640-70Q 

2500 
400 

300-600 

1300-1500 

1300-1500 
2800-3000 

1000 
3500 

800-3000 

600 

750 
1000 
2000 


$375 
200 
225 1 

225 J 

1 
500 J. 

125 J 
100-150 ■< 

300 ] 

335 \ 

500 J 

250 \ 
500 

225-600 S 

\ 

250 

275 ' 
375 
475 


Vermont Farm Ma- 
chine Co., Bel- 
lows Falls, Vt. 

A. H. Reid, Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

Columbia Cream 
Separator Co., 
Avon, N. Y. 

U. S. Butter Ex- 
tractor Co.. New- 
ark, N. J. 

Dairymen's Supply 
Co., Philadelphia, 
Pa 


Empire " 25'"'' 

7. Victoria Power Separators. 

Improved Belt Power 

Empress Power 


8. The Eclipse Separators. 

No. 6-9 (four styles) 

9. Alexandra Steam Turbine 

Separators.* 
No. 4 


The L. S. Chapman 
Separator Works, 
Erie, Pa. 

R. A. Lister & Co., 
Lid., Montreal, 
Canada. 


No. 0I6 


No. 3 

No. 2 



* Prices include separator and boiler. 

FORMULAS FOR FINDING THE FAT CONTENT 
OF CREAM. 



Fleischmatin' s formula : 

Per cent fat in cream = /j = 



ioo(/-/.) 
R 



■A 



where R = per cent of cream obtained, / = per cent fat in 
milk,/*! = per cent fat in skim-milk ; or 
_ looF 



CREAM. 245 

where F — per cent of fat in butter, B = yield of butter 
from loo lbs. of milk, A = percentage churning. Under 
ordinary conditions of creaming these formulas may be 
simplified to 

/a = 6.67/ - 1.42, 

A = 5.77^. 

Formula for finding the per cent cream to be separated when 
a certain fat content in the cream is wanted (Fleischmann): 

_ ioo(/-/0 . 

/, /i , and /a = per cent of fat in full milk, skim-milk, and 
cream, respectively. 

HANDLING AND CARE OF CREAM SEPARATORS. 

By J. D. Frederiksen, Little Falls, N. Y., Manager Chr. Hansen's 
Laboratory. 

In selecting a separator, local conditions, space at dis- 
posal, nearness to its manufacturer who can put it up, 
be held responsible, and quickly attend to repairs, etc., 
may be of importance, and the following points should be 
considered: 

Thorough Separation. — All manufacturers claim that 
their machines do perfect work, but they do not always 
come up to the claims. Under normal conditions the meas- 
ure for thoroughness of separation is the contents of butter-fat 
in the skim-milk as ascertained by the Babcock test. The best 
modern separators skim practically absolutely clean, and 
there is now no excuse for anything but perfect skimming. 
With normal milk at the proper temperature run into the 
machine at the rate of the capacity claimed for it, no sepa- 
rator should leave more than o.\% of butter-fat in the skim- 
milk, which is the smallest percentage that can be ascer- 
tained by the Babcock test with accuracy. 

The table below gives the grand averages for the per- 
centages of fat found in the trials of a number of the 
leading separators, conducted at the experiment stations 
of Delaware, Cornell (N. Y.), Vermont, Pennsylvania, and 
Wisconsin, 



246 



DAIRTIKG. 



PER CENT FAT IN CENTRIlUGALi SKIM-MILK. 



Style of Separator. 



Butter Accumulator 

Colu mbia Cream Separator 

Reid's Impr. Danish Separator 

Danish- Weston " 

De Laval Alpha No. I " 

" Alpha Acme " 

" Alpha Turbine " 

" Alpha Baby No. 2 Separator. . 
" Alpha Baby No. 3 " . . 

" Horizontal Separator 

Jumbo Separator 

Sharpies Russian Separator 

" Imperial " 

U. S. Butter Extractor Sep. No. i 

Do. (as separator) 

U. S. Butter Extr. Sep. No. 2 

Do. No. 3 

U. S. Separator No. i 

Do. No. 3 

Do. No. 5 

Victoria, 30 gal. Separator 

Do. 70 gal. " 



Avernges of Trials at 

American Experiment 

Stations. 



Number 
of Trials. 



Per cent 

Fat in 

Skim-milk. 



21 


.09 


51 


.OQ 


12 


.08 


7 


.125 


9 


19 


4 


.21 


34 


.24 


30 


•34 


5 


.24 


2 


.14 


8 


, -34 


ID 


.21 


9 


•17 


21 


.10 


27 


•13 


25 


.22 



With the constant improvement in machines it is not 
difficult to find separators which will do perfect work. 

Simplicity, durability and safety of coustrudion are con- 
siderations of vital importance. The separator must be 
simple in construction so as to be easy to handle, to clean, 
and to oil. It must be durable, so that it will need but few 
repairs, and, first of all, it must be absolutely safe. Too 
many deplorable fatal accidents are already due to burst- 
ing separator bowls, and too much stress cannot be laid on 
the demand that the machine must by strongly built, of first- 
class material and workmanship, so that accidents are 
made impossible with reasonably careful handling. 

As the pressure on the circumference of the bowl increases 
with the square of the speed, it is evident that the modern 
high-speed separators are exposed to a tremendous strain 
— in fact the tensile strain in some of them is as high as 
20,000 to 30,000 lbs. to the square inch. Fortunately, the im- 
provements in bearings and other features of construction 



CREAM. 



247 



which have enabled manufacturers to increase the speed, 
have caused them at the same time to reduce the diameter 
of the bowl, which makes the modern machine much safer 
than the first crude and heavy separators. 

Pozver. — Considering its capacity, a well-built separator 
requires comparatively little power, whether coal or 
muscle. But as either is money, it is a matter of impor- 
tance that none be wasted. Many so-called hand separa- 
tors are altogether too heavy to run by hand, hence in 
selecting one see that it is easy to keep it running for 
several hours. The tests made at the experiment stations 
by dynamometer, as well as by measuring the steam con- 
sumed, show that there is a great deal of steam wasted in 
a creamery above that actually required to drive the separa- 
tor; that *' the turbines use steam extravagantly, but that 
the small engine of the creamery uses it still more extrava- 
gantly." Due allowance must therefore be made for this 
waste in comparing results obtained by various methods 
of testing. The following table gives some of the results 
published by the stations: 

Horse-power per 1000 lbs. Milk. 



Style of Separator. 


Dela- 
ware. 


New 

York. 


Ver- 
mont. 


Wisconsin. 






2.69 
3-17 


■";:83" 


2.45 


Columbia Cream Separator 








1.52 


De Laval Standard 
















" Alpha Acme 






0.79 


0.98 
0.46 


" Baby No. 2 

" " No. 3 


0-37 




0.26 


■i:87" 


Jumbo . 






United States No. i 








No. 3 




0.76 


0.63 
0.72 


" No 5 








2.78 




" 30 ffals. 


0.74 
0.85 








De Laval Alpha Turbin^ 






1.47 to 1.79 
1.42 

1.75 to 2. II 










" Russian 













These tests are made with single machines and do not 
guarantee that all separators of the same makes consume 



248 



DAIRYIKG. 



the same power or steam. The accumulating results of 
such trials being compiled, however, become a guide in 
estimating the value of the various machines in the 
market. As between belt and' turbine (or direct steam) 
power, the former is preferable in large creameries. In 
small plants one is about as economical as the other, and 
the choice may depend upon whether an engine is needed 
j for churning, butter-worker, pump, and other purposes, or 
you can do without it. 

Capacity. — In selecting a separator it is best to have 
plenty of capacity. In a large creamery it is better to 
have two separators of moderate size than one very large 
machine. Only in very large creameries may separators 
of largest capacity be preferable. The capacity should be 
such as to finish the day's work in 4 to 6 hours at the time 
when there is most milk. In the private dairy, using a 
hand separator, the work should require only one hour, 
rather less. The following would be our idea of the proper 
capacity: 



Largest Supply of Milk 
per Day, lbs. 


Number of 
Machines. 


Capacity of Each 

Machine, lbs. 

per hour. 


Power. 


15,000 or more 


j 2or J 
1 more j 

2 

2 

2 


2,000 to 2,500 

1,500 " 2,000 
1,200 " 1,500 

1,000 

1,200 
600 to 1,000 

600 
300 to 500 

300 
150 


Engine 




» 




Eng. or Turb. 


2,500 " 5,000 




j Sheep, or dog, 
1 or turbine. 
j Hand, or dog, 
\ or sheep. 
Hand 






Less than 100 





Condition of Cream. — As discharged from the separator, 
the cream should be smooth and even, free from froth and 
of perfect " churnability." 

As to cost, the best machine is ahvays the cheapest in the long 
run. Repairs, waste of fat in the skim-milk, of oil, and of 
coal, by an inferior machine, will more than make up any 
saving in first cost. 



CREAM. 249 

Running the Separator. 

The Operator should understand his Business. — He should 
have thorough training in creameries as a helper and, if 
possible, in a dairy school, before undertaking to manage 
a creamery separator on his own responsibility. A new 
machine should be put up and started by the manufacturer 
or his agent, and prove in perfect shape and efficiency be- 
fore he leaves. Every manufacturer gives detailed in- 
structions as to the care of the separator, and such an 
instruction book should always be at hand. The operator 
of hand as well as of power machines should make him- 
self familiar with every detail of the construction. 

Condition and Temperature of the Milk. — Fresh and warm 
from the cow, the milk is in the best condition to be skimmed. 
If it cannot be had in that condition, it should be aerated 
and cooled on the farm, so that it arrives at the creamery 
or the dairy at not over 60°. Then reheat it to 80° or 85°, 
not under 75° and not over 90°. This heating is prefer- 
ably done in some continuous heater, as it is dangerous to 
heat it in bulk, because milk standing some time at 85° is 
apt to spoil. While the separator will skim at a lower 
temperature, either the skimming is not clean or less milk 
must be run through the machine in the same time. Of 
course, the milk must be sweet. 

Starting. — Oil all bearings thoroughly y using only the very 
best oil. Ascertain that everything is in trim order, then 
start according to instructions, which vary for different 
kinds of machines. Always start carefully, and where the 
belt from the intermediate is shifted from loose to fixed 
pulley, do it slowly and gradually, helping with the hand 
on the belt to start the bowl. When the bowl appears to 
be running at full speed without shaking, ascertain if it 
really does so by means of the speed indicator, which 
should always be found on any power machine. 

Never allow the machine to run faster than permitted by 
the manufacturer. If you do, it is at your risk and at 
the risk of the lives of your assistants. Use the speed 
indicator often. 



250 DAIRYING. 

See that the feed of new milk is correct and that the pro- 
portion of cream to milk is as wanted. Hold a quart meas- 
ure under the skim-milk spout and a measuring glass un- 
der the cream outlet, and, when the quart measure is full, 
see how much cream you have in the measuring glass, tak- 
ing the time by your watch. If you have 6 ozs. of cream 
to I quart of skim-milk in 9 seconds, you have taken 6 
parts of cream from 38 of new milk, or a little less than 
one sixth, or about 16^, and you are running at the rate 
of 950 lbs. per hour. How large a proportion of cream to 
take from the milk depends upon the richness of the milk 
and the consistency of cream desired. If you have 4jS 
milk and you wish cream of 28^ fat, you will take i 
part of cream from 7 of new milk, or 14^ . 

Keep the oil-cups filled z.vi& look frequently at all working 
parts of the machinery. Well started and regulated, it 
will run uninterrupted until all the milk is skimmed. 
When the last milk has entered the bowl, pour in suffi- 
cient skim-milk to crowd out all the cream left. If the 
skim-milk is removed from the building while the separa- 
tor is running, take samples frequently, or, if it is all left 
after the work is done, take a few average samples to test 
with the Babcock machine, so as to control the day^ s work. 

Stop the machine cautiously, removing the motive power 
and letting the bowl come to a stand-still of itself without 
applying any brake. Remove the skim-milk left in the bowl 
by a siphon or otherwise, take off the covers, etc., and lift 
out the bowl. 

Cleaning. — First rinse the bowl and other parts which 
have been in contact with milk in cold or tepid water, and 
then scrub them in boiling water, frequently using some 
solution of sal-soda. Scrub and brush every corner. Rinse 
in clean boiling water and steam out the tin covers, etc. 
Wipe with a cloth and set the things to dry. Pump out 
every pipe that cannot be reached by hand and brush. If 
possible, avoid the use of rubber hose to conduct the milk 
from the vat or heater to the separator, but use open tin 
conductors or short tin pipes, which can be easily kept 
clean. Rubber hose cannot be washed in boiling water 



CREAM, 



251 



or soda, and is a source of contamination. Clean the 
separator stand carefully with a cloth and wipe the spindles, 
etc. Occasionally clean out the oil-chambers with kerosene 
oil, and always see to it that no gum is formed and that 
the oil-grooves and tubes are open. 

If the separator shakes, or in any way works Imper- 
fectly, find the cause without delay and remedy it. If you 
fail to find the fault, or you cannot remedy it yourself, 
notify the manufacturer or his agent, and have him attend 
to it at once. 

Treatment of the Cream. — As the cream leaves the separa- 
tor, it should at once be cooled to 50° or lower. This in- 
sures " body " in the butter, and should not be neglected, 
at least not unless the cream is thoroughly chilled after it 
is ripened, before churning. 

LOSS OF BUTTER CAUSED BY INEFFICIENT 
SKIMMING. 

If three-tenths of one per cent of fat is left in the skim- 
milk, instead of two-tenths, in a separator creamery receiv- 
ing 1000 lbs. of milk a day, there will be a loss of about 340 
lbs. of butter for the whole year, on the supposition that 
1000 lbs. of milk yield 800 lbs. of skim-milk, and i lb. of 
butter contains .86 lbs. of fat. If the separation is still 
poorer, greater losses will be sustained, as will be seen ia 
the table given below. (Friis.) 





Excess of Fat Left in Skim-milk. 


Lbs. of Milk 










per Day. 


.05 per cent. 


.10 per cent. 


.20 per cent. 


.30 per cent. 




Loss of Butter During Whole Year. 


1,000 


170 


340 


680 


1,020 


2,000 


340 


680 


1360 


2,040 


3,000 


510 


1030 


2040 


3,060 


4,000 


680 


1360 


2720 


4,089 


5,000 


850 


1700 


3400 


5,100 


6,000 


1020 


2040 


4080 


6,120 


7,000 


1 190 


2380 


4760 


7,140 


8,000 


1360 


2729 


5440 


8,160 


9,000 


1530 


3060 


6120 


9,t8o 


10,000 


1700 


3400 


6800 


10,200 



252 DAlRYINa. 

RELATION OF FAT CONTENT OF SEPARATOR 
SKIM-MILK AND SPEED OF BOWL, QUANTITY 
OF MILK SEPARATED, AND TEMPERATURE 
OF THE MILK. 

Fleischmann gives the following formula for ascertaining 
the fat content of separator skim-milk,/ being ^he per cent 
fat in the skim-milk, M the quantity of milk skimmed per 
hour, u the speed of the bowl, and t the temperature of 
the milk: 

/=.*^Xr.o35""' 

r is a constant which must be determined for each machine; 
Hittcher found its value, in the case of three different ma- 
chines, as follows: 480,152; 547,800; 363,430. The results 
obtained by the use of the formula seem to agree fairly 
well with chemical analysis of the skim-milk where care 
is taken in determining the various factors entering into 
the calculation. 

STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE MANAGEMENT. 

By Frof. A. W. Richter, of the University of Wisconsin. 
Boiler. 
Feed Apparatus. — Every boiler should be provided with a 
check-valve, placed between the feed apparatus and boiler, and 
in such a manner as to have the weight of the valve assist in 
closing it. Between this check-valve and boiler there should be 
an additional globe or gate-valve which may be closed, thus 
permitting repairing or cleaning of the check-valve while the 
boiler is in operation. 

Water Supply. — Feed-water should enter a boiler in such a 
manner that the plates do not receive the direct impact of cold 
water. The usual practice is to have the feed enter through 
the blow-off pipe, thus preventing this pipe from clogging. The 
feed supply should be regulated so as to keep the water level 
as stationary as possible, The greatest care must be taken that 
the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. Neg- 
lect in this direction will cause the metal to become overheated 
and consequently weakened, causing leakage of joints and m- 



CREAM. 253 

creased wear and tear, but more often resulting in an explosion 
of a more or less serious nature. 

Water-glass and M^ater-gatiges. — Every boiler should have 
three water-gauges in addition to a water-glass ; these are 
usually attached to a hollow cast-iron cylinder or tube con- 
nected with the water and steam spaces. 

The water-glass should be blown out daily, and, if clogged, 
can be safely cleaned with a bent wire. 

In no case should the water glass alone be depended upon to 
indicate the water level. 

Steam-gatcge. — Each boiler should be provided with a steam- 
gauge, which gauge should be directly connected with it. 

Safety-valve. — Every boiler should be provided with a safety- 
valve having direct communication with the steam space, and 
there should, moreover, be an intervening valve. Some of 
the most disastrous explosions can be traced to faulty ar- 
rangement in this respect. The valve thoughtlessly left 
closed after cleaning or repairs prevents the safety-valve 
from relieving the pressure when it rises above the safe 
working pressure of the boiler. 

Safety-valves are of two kinds : spring and lever safety- 
valves. Of the two valves the lever-valve has the most dis- 
advantages, one of the most important being the ease with 
which it may be made useless by adding an additional weight 
to that already provided, in order to keep the valve on its seat, 
and therefore greatly increasing the pressure at which it will 
blow off. 

A safety-valve should be raised each day by hand so as to 
allow steam to escape; this prevents clogging and rusting. 

The dealer will usually set the spring-valve so that it will 
blow off at the desired pressure. It can be adjusted, however, 
by loosening or tightening a screw provided for that purpose. 

The lever-valve may be set v;ith the aid of the following 
formula: 

_ bPA -Vb- wc ^ 
W ' 

/— distance from weight to fulcrum; 

3 = " " valve centre to fulcrum; 

( ~ distance from the centre of gravity of the lever of the ful- 
crum; 



254 DAIRYlNGo 

P = boiler pressure; 

A = area of valve ; 

V = weight of valve; 

w = " " lever, 

IV = weight hung upon the lever. 

Firing. — Firing should be gradual, and the grate kept com- 
pletely covered with coal or ashes. The fire should not be more 
than four or five inches deep unless the pieces of coal are large, 
in which case the depth may be increased. 

The fire-doors and flue-doors should not be opened in order to 
keep down the steam pressure. This practice not only wastes 
fuel but is injurious to the boiler, and will not be necessary if 
the boiler is properly attended to. 

P timing or Foaming. — Foaming is a rapid disturbance of the 
water, in consequence of which it rises in the boiler in the form 
of spray or foam; it is usually caused by dirty water, presence 
of oil, etc., the boiler not having been cleaned for some time or 
not thoroughly cleaned. Foaming may, however, be due to 
other causes, such as too small a steam space, sudden demand 
of a great quantity of steam, etc. In case a boiler foams all 
steam connections should be shut off and the fire dampened by 
means of a fresh supply of live coal or ashes. These precau- 
tions will usually sufl5ce to allow the water to settle, and to 
enable one to ascertain the true water level. If the glass shows 
a small amount of water, start the pump or injector, and fill the 
boiler to a point between the second and third gauge. The 
boiler may then be blown off to the first gauge by means of the 
surface blow-off, if one be present, and if not present the regular 
blow-off valve may be used. This operation being repeated, 
the impurities are gradually diminished, but care must be taken 
that the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. 
The boiler can now be used as before, but in all cases it should 
be thoroughly cleaned as soon as possible. 

Removal of Scale. — Potatoes, about eight or ten in number, 
are sometimes placed in the boiler after cleaning. Soda or 
kerosene may also be injected with the feed-water in quantity to 
be determined by observation. Boiler compounds should be 
used with caution, and when used should be obtained from a 
reliable dealer. Too great a quantity of any of the above will 
be harmful. 



CREAM. 255 

Cleaning. — The interval during which a boiler requires no 
cleaning depends upon the quantity and the quality of water 
evaporated. Under usual conditions, in order to obtain the 
best results, a boiler should be cleaned every six or eight weeks. 

If a boiler is to be cleaned it should be allowed to stand until 
it is partially cooled off. When blown out cold the metal in the 
interior will usually be found covered with a thick coating of soft 
deposit, which can easily be scraped off or washed off with a 
hose and stream of water. 

If a boiler be blown off while the metal is at a high tempera- 
ture, the deposited matter is usually baked and forms a solid and 
hard coating, increasing rapidly if not carefully removed by the 
process of chipping. 

Boiler Power. — The manner in which the horse-power of a 
boiler is usually calculated is far from satisfactory, depending 
rather upon its size than its power of evaporation. 

In 1884 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 
adopted the following definite standard: 

** A horse-power shall be equivalent to an evaporation of 
thirty pounds of water into dry steam per hour from feed- 
water at 100° Fahrenheit, and under a pressure of 70 lbs. per 
square inch above the atmosphere." 

Steam-engine. — The engine should be provided with a gov- 
ernor to regulate its speed, a lubricator to oil valve and piston, 
and a sufficient number of oil cups, so that all bearings may be 
properly oiled. 

Starting the Engine. — Before starting, all bearings should be 
supplied with oil, and all waste pipes connected with cylinder 
and steam-chest opened. The engine should then be started 
slowly, so as to allow the water to escape. A quantity of steam 
will always condense as it comes in contact with the cold 
cylinder-walls, in addition to the water already present in the 
steam-pipe. This water does not pass off as readily as steam, 
neither can it be compressed to any great extent. Therefore, 
if more water be present in the cylinder than will fill the clear- 
ance space, and this water not be allowed to escape, the piston 
moving towards the end of its stroke will strike the water, and 
consequently be compelled to stop. The greater the speed of 
the piston as it advances, the greater the force with which it 
strikes the water, resulting in many cases in a broken cylinder 



256 ^ DAIRYING. 

It is well to have a waste-pipe connected to the steam-pipe at 
a point just above the engine- valve, in order that the water 
which has collected in the steam pipe may be blown out before 
opening the steam-valve. 

After the engine has been in operation for a minute or two 
the waste-valves should be closed. 

Horse-power. — The horse-power of an engine may be calca>' 
lated by means of the following formula: 

H. P. = ^^'" 



33000 



H. P. = horse power; 

P = mean effective pressure in the cylinder; 
L = twice the length of the stroke, in feet; 
a = area of piston in square inches; 
n = number of revolutions per minute. 

ON TH2] PRESERVATION OF MILK AND CREAM 
BY HEAT. 

By Dr. H. L. Russell, of Wisconsin Experiment Station, 
Author of " Dairy Bacteriology". 

On account of the innumerable bacteria that gain access 
to milk during the process of milking, and subsequent to 
that time, and the rapid increase of the same in this nutri- 
tious fluid, this material universally undergoes fermentative 
changes, the rapidity of which is largely dependent upon 
the surrounding temperature. To increase the keeping 
quality of milk, it is necessary to annihilate these bacteria 
or keep them under influences unfavorable to their growth. 

Heat has been found to be the most efficacious agent in 
preserving milk in its natural condition. It is applied in 
two ways, viz., i. Pasteurization^ where the milk or cream 
is heated for a short time (20-30 min.) at a temperature near 
the coagulating point of the proteid constituents of the milk 
(i50°-i6o° F.). 2. Sterilization, where the temperature ap- 
proximates or exceeds the boiling-point and is applied for 
a longer time. 

The object in both cases is to kill the bacteria present in 
the milk. 



CREAM. 257 

Sterilization accomplishes this most successfully, but it 
changes the proteid compounds so that the milk has an un- 
desirable "cooked" flavor and odor. 

This defect is not found in pasteurized milk, and if prop- 
erly handled, milk treated by this process will remain sweet 
from 4 to 8 days. 

For use in the near future the pasteurized product is, on 
the whole, the most satisfactory ; the sterilized material being 
best adapted for export purposes. 

The essential condition in pasteurization is that the pas- 
teurizing temperature shall exceed the thermal death point 
(the temperature at which growing bacteria are destroyed) 
of disease-producing as well as fermentative bacteria. This 
temperature for most forms is about 140° F., but certain dis- 
ease organisms like the tubercle germ of tuberculosis is not 
killed below 149° F. for 30 minutes, or 155° F. for 15 minutes. 
As this germ is often found in milk from tuberculous cows, 
prudence dictates the use of this temperature as a standard 
for the pasteurization of milk and cream. The proteids in 
the milk are slightly affected at this temperature, but if the 
milk is thoroughly chilled, the "cooked" flavor disappears. 

The application of this temperature kills only the growing 
bacteria, and does not affect the latent spores. If after 
being heated the milk is allowed to cool slowly, and is left 
at a comparatively warm temperature (exceeding 55^ F.), 
these spores germinate and soon change the character of the 
milk, so that the value of the heating process is lost. To be 
efficient, it is necessary to rapidly cool the pasteurized prod- 
uct below the germinating point of the spores, for if they are 
once allowed to sprout, they will develop slowly at a very 
low temperature. 

In pasteurizing milk or cream, the apparatus should be 
constructed so that a definite quantity of the fluid can be 
held at any desired temperature for any length of time, and 
during the process protected from infection from the air. 
The apparatus must also be made so as to be easily cleaned 
and thoroughly sterilized by steam throughout. The milk 
must be protected from air infection during its withdrawal 
from the pasteurizing vat into storage vessels (cans and 



258 DAIRTIKG. 

bottles), and should be thoroughly chilled in a refrigerator 
for several hours (better over night) before being delivered 
to the consumer. This chilling process should succeed the 
heating operation as quickly as possible, as the sudden 
transition in temperature from 155° F. to 55° F. or less has 
a paralyzing effect on the development of those organisms 
(spores) that are not killed by the heat. The machines that 
have been put on the market have for the most part been 
designed primarily from the dairyman's standpoint, and 
while they fulfill their requirements as to capacity, cheap- 
ness, etc., yet they cannot in general be relied upon to treat 
the milk in a way so as to free it with certainty from all pos- 
sible disease-producing bacteria. The Potts' Pasteurizer, 
which has been sold quite extensively in this country during 
late years, may, however, be considered an entirely satis- 
factory and practical machine. 

Pasteurization in this country is applied with great suc- 
cess to milk and cream where these products are used in 
the liquid form. It is used to some extent in this country, 
but much more widely in continental Europe, in the prepara- 
tion of cream for the manufacture of butter by the use of a 
pure culture-starter. It can also be used advantageously 
in the hot months for increasing the length of time that 
by-products of the factory like skim-milk and whey may be 
preserved. 

Pasteurization, as well as sterilization, reduces the body, 
consistency, of milk and cream, and these products therefore 
seem thinner after having been subjected to the process of 
heating than before. To obviate this. Dr. Babcock and 
the writer in 1896 recommended the addition of a small 
quantity of a solution of sucrate of lime (" viscogen") to 
the milk or cream, which will restore the consistency of the 
products, and in case of cream, greatly increase its whip- 
ping quality. (See Bull. No. 54 or thirteenth report of 
Wisconsin Experiment Station.) 



CREAM. 259 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE STERILIZATION OF MILK. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

The Sterilization of milk for children, now quite exten- 
sively practised in order to destroy the injurious germs 
which it may contain, can be satisfactorily accomplished 
with very simple apparatus. The vessel containing the 
milk, which may be the bottle from which it is to be used 
or any other suitable vessel, is placed inside of a larger 
vessel of metal, which contains the water. If a bottle, it is 
plugged with absorbent cotton, if this is at hand, or in its 
absence, other clean cotton will answer. A small fruit-jar 
loosely covered may be used instead of a bottle. The re- 
quirements are simply that the interior vessel shall be raised 
about half an inch above the bottom of the other, and that 
the water shall reach nearly or quite as high as the milk. 
The apparatus is then heated on a range or stove until the 
water reaches a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit, 
when it is removed from the heat and kept tightly covered 
for half an hour. The milk-bottles are then taken out and 
kept in a cool place. The milk may be used any time within 
twenty-four hours. A temperature of 150 degrees main- 
tained for half an hour is sufficient to destroy any germs 
likely to be present in the milk, and it is found in practice 
that raising the temperature to 155 degrees and then allow- 
ing it to stand in the heated water for half an hour insures 
the proper temperature for the required time. The tempera- 
ture should not be raised above 155 degrees, otherwise the 
taste and quality of the m.ilk will be impaired. 

The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a per- 
forated tin pie-plate in the bottom, or have made for it a 
removable false bottom perforated with holes and having 
legs half an inch high to allow circulation of the water. 
The milk-bottle is set on this false bottom, and sufficient 
water is put into the pail to reach the level of the surface 
of the milk in the bottle. A hole may be punched in the 
cover of the pail, a cork inserted, and a chemical thermom . 
eter put through the cork, so that the bulb dips into the 
water. The temperature can thus be watched without re- 



260 DAIRYING. 

moving the cover. If preferred an ordinary dairy ther- 
mometer may be used and the temperature tested from time 
to time by removing the lid. This is very easily arranged, 
and is just as satisfactory as the patented apparatus sold 
for the same purpose. 

QUANTITY OF WATER OR ICE REQUIRED FOR 
COOLING MILK OR CREAM. (Maktiny.) 

The quantity of water or ice required to cool milk or 
cream may be calculated from the following formulas, where 

M = quantity of milk or cream to be cooled, in lbs. 

/ = its temperature. 
W = quantity of water required for cooling, in lbs. 

/= " " ice " " " " " 

i' = temperature of water or ice at beginning. 

T = end temperature of cooled milk or cream. 

r = end temperature of cooling water. 

S = specific heat of milk (.84*) or of cream (.78*). 
79.25 = latent heat of water. 

(a) Water required for cooling milk or cream — 

1. Cooled in tin cans holding milk or cream to be cooled: 

„,_ {Mt- MT)S 
^ ~ T-t' 

2. By application of coolers and running water: 

^Mt - MT)S 
^^ r-t' 

(<5) Ice required for cooling milk or cream — 

{Mt - MT)S 



1 = 



r-\-t' X 79-25 



In these formulas the influence of the surrounding air is 
not considered. 

* Not determined, but considered approximately correct. 



BUTTER. 261 



IV. BUTTER. 

BUTTE R-M AKING. 

By H. B. GuRLER, De Kalb, 111,, ex-President 111. State Dairymen's Assn., 
Author of " American Dairying." 

Butter is made from milk. The cow manufactures the 
milk from the food she eats, hence the necessity of sound 
food. Unsound food makes off-flavored milk and poor 
butter. Some cows can manufacture food into milk at a 
profit, others cannot; hence the necessity of knowing the 
individuality of each cow, or her ability to work at a profit 
to her owner. 

At this stage of the dairy work there is no excuse for a 
dairyman not knowing what each and every cow is doing 
for him, thus being able to "weed out" the unprofitable 
ones. 

Be careful and cleanly in milking. Remove the milk to 
a pure atmosphere as soon as drawn from the cows. If the 
cream is raised by gravity process be careful of the sur- 
roundings, as milk will absorb bad odors from decayed 
vegetables, the hog-pen, the cow-yard, the kerosene-can, a 
filthy stable, from cooking in the kitchen, and various other 
sources. 

When milk is put through the separator as soon as it is 
drawn from the cow this source of danger is removed. 
Cream from the separator should be cooled immediately to 
a temperature of 60°; 55° is better. A cooler that will 
aerate at the same time it is cooling is very desirable. This 
is a vital point which many butter-makers stumble over. 
When through separating and cooling, temper the cream to 
the temperature necessary to have it ripen at the time you 
wish to churn. If it is to be churned the following day this 
temperature should be Cs'^-yo". If the second day, 55''-6o°; 
and if it is to stand four to seven days, cool to 40', if pos§i- 



262 DAIRYING. 

ble, as soon as practicable, and hold at that temperature 
until the day before you wish to churn, when it should be 
warmed to a temperature that will give the right acidity by 
the time you wish to churn. This temperature will depend 
on the kind of cream, whether separator cream or cream 
from some gravity process. Cream from shallow setting 
may be sufficiently ripened when taken from the milk. I 
recommend the use of Prof. Farrington's acid tablets for 
testing the acidity of cream (see p. 270). They are a great 
help to a beginner. 

Churn at as low a temperature as you can. This will de- 
pend on the per cent of fat in the cream. Rich cream can 
be churned at a much lower temperature than cream poor 
in fat. Cream from deep, cold setting may be churned at 
58° to 62°; and thick, rich cream from shallow setting at 
a much lower temperature. An ironclad rule cannot be 
made that will fit all cases. The separator will give cream 
containing various per cent of fat, from 15 to 40 per cent. 
Separator cream containing 15 per cent fat will need to be 
churned at about the same temperature as deep, cold setting 
cream. Separator cream containing 40 per cent can be 
churned at a temperature of 50", can be gathered at 50°, so 
the buttermilk will draw at that temperature. A low tem- 
perature gives the most exhaustive churning. At this tem- 
perature the buttermilk should contain no more fat than 
the average separator skim-milk. Cream containing a large 
per cent of fat does not develop acid as fast as cream with 
more milk in it. Cool cream for churning about two hours 
before, so as to let the butter-fat have time to solidify or 
harden. This gives a more waxy texture to the butter. 

Stop the churn when the butter granules are the size of 
wheat. If the granules are too small there is danger of a 
loss from its passing through the strainer. Wash no more 
than is necessary to remove the buttermilk. The colder it 
is churned the less washing is needed. When butter gathers 
at 54° one washing is sufficient ; if at 62° to 64°, two or 
three washings will be needed. Washing removes some 
of the delicate flavor or aroma. Remove the water from 
the churn as soon as possible — as soon as it has done its 



BUTTEB. 263 

work. Never allow it to lie and soak unless there is no 
other way of hardening the butter to a temperature where 
you can handle it. 

Salt to suit your trade. Work once or twice, as you pre- 
fer; twice working is preferable, as it makes the nicer-ap- 
pearing butter. Work just enough to remove the mottled 
or streaked appearance. When worked twice this can be 
told at the time by the appearance of the butter. When 
worked but once it cannot be told until the butter has stood 
long enough for the salt to dissolve. If worked but once 
examine the butter the following day, until you make your- 
self a rule of thumb to work by. I have found this neces- 
sary. I am compelled to look after this point in my 
creamery work when the butter is worked but once. Use 
the kind of butter-package that suits your trade, but always 
let it be neat. Never send a mussy-looking package to 
market. You cannot afford to do it. 

ON THE USE OF PUKE CULTURES IN BUTTER- 
AND CHEESE MAKING. 

The ripening of cream is brought about through the action 
of minute plants, so-called bacteria. These are practically 
omnipresent where man lives, and get into the milk during 
the milking and the handling of the milk and cream in the 
dairy. They multiply enormously in the cream during the 
ripening process, owing to the very favorable conditions of 
life which they find'there. Some forms of bacteria are de- 
sirable and even essential in the manufacture of sour-cream 
butter; these feed largely on the milk-sugar of the cream, 
and decompose this component into lactic acid, which is the 
characteristic acid of sour cream (as well as of sour milk). 
Along with this formation of lactic acid in the cream other 
complicated, and yet but little understood, decomposition 
processes take place, the results of which are felt in the fine 
aromatic flavor of the butter produced. Other forms of 
bacteria cause obnoxious fermentations in the cream, and 
produce a butter of "off" flavor, in aggravated cases 
diseased butter, making the product unfit to eat, or at least 



264 DAIRYING. 

unsalable as a first-class article. The process of sour- 
cream butter-making is therefore, at the bottom, a question 
of keeping the fermentations during the ripening of the 
cream in the right track, of controlling the same so as to 
exclude all but lactic-acid-producing bacteria. The old 
original way of reaching this end was to allow the cream 
to sour spontaneously, trusting to luck to obtain the desired 
fermentation of the cream by leaving it standing in a warm 
f room for a couple of days. Later on, a buttermilk starter 
i from a preceding churning or a skim-milk starter was added 
tfor the purpose of ripening the cream ; by this means 
the lactic-acid bacteria contained in the starter were intro- 
duced in such large numbers that they generally were able to 
crowd out other kinds of bacteria that might be found in the 
cream, and which, if left alone, would produce undesirable 
fermentations in the cream and bad flavor in the butter. 
The next step in advance was the introduction of pure 
cultures of lactic-acid bacteria; these consist of one or a 
few forms of bacteria, and when introduced in milk or 
cream will be apt to overpower all other forms of bacteria 
therein, and thus produce the pure mild flavor of sour- 
cream butter desired. 

The honor of having first introduced pure cultures in 
butter-making belongs to Dr. V. Storch, the chemist of 
the Danish state experiment station in Copenhagen; the 
bulletin describing Dr. Storch's investigations of this 
subject, "On the Ripening of Cream," was published in 
1890. Other bacteriologists in Europe and in this country 
have worked along this same line, and as a result we find 
that pure cultures are at the present time used almost 
universally in the manufacture of sour-cream butter in 
the creameries and dairies of northern Europe, and also 
in this country their use has become general and is spread- 
ing. The expected result of adding a pure culture-starter, 
viz., that of excluding all undesirable fermentations in 
the ripening of the cream, will not, however, follow with 
any certainty unless the seeding with the pure culture 
is preceded by pasteurization or sterilization of the cream, 
that is, at least a partial destruction of the bacteria already 
found therein. In Europe, notably in Denmark and the 



BUTTER. 26& 

other Scandinavian countries, pasteurization of the milk 
(or of the cream) is practised regularly in all the best 
creameries, in the former country at present in perhaps go 
per cent of the creameries in operation. In this country 
the firms manufacturing and selling pure cultures have 
unfortunately not insisted on this point, and where pure 
culture-starters are used with us it is nearly always with- 
out previous pasteurization. One reason why pasteuriza- 
tion has not been adopted in the manufacture of butter in 
this country is that the market demands a higher flavored, 
' stronger " butter than is wanted by the European market, 
and the pure cultures on the market, when used with 
pasteurized cream, do not produce such a butter. The 
expense of pasteurization of the cream and the absence of 
proper apparatus, or non-introduction of such as have 
proved successful in European practice, furthermore tend 
to explain why our butter-makers do not generally pasteur- 
ize the cream in using pure culture-starters. 

The three pure cultures now on the market in this 
country are Chr. Hansen's Lactic Ferment (Chr. Hansen's 
Laboratory, Little Falls, N. Y.), Conn's culture (B. 41, 
Conn Butter Improvement Co., Philadelphia, Pa.), and the 
Boston Butter Culture (Boston Butter Culture Co., Boston, 
Mass.). The first one is of Danish origin, and is one of the 
standard pure cultures used in the Scandinavian countries ; 
the second was described by its originator in the author's 
Dairy Calendar for 1896. These cultures are placed on the 
market in dry form as a powder, or as pellets. Directions 
for using the cultures accompany each package sold. In 
general, the method to be followed is to seed the culture in 
a quantity of sterilized skim-milk or cream; this is kept for 
one to two days at a temperature below 90° (B. 41 70°, 
Lactic Ferment 86°); the starter is then mixed with the 
cream to be ripened, generally adding about 2 per cent. The 
cream will be ready for churning the next day. A portion 
of the starter prepared is used for the seeding of a new lot 
of sterilized skim-milk, which will make the starter for the 
following day, and the same process is continued until 
deterioration of the starter sets in, as shown by lack of 
flavor in the ripened cream and in the butter; a fresh batch 
is then prepared from a new package of ferment. If propei 



266 DAIRYING. 

care in sterilizing the skim-milk and in handling the starter 
is taken, the pure culture may be propagated in this manner 
for months. With lack of cleanliness and care it must be 
renewed every other week or oftener. 

While the use of pure cultures has not as yet become 
general in American creameries, the agitation caused by 
their introduction and the discussions in dairy papers and 
dairy meetings which they have brought about have doubt- 
less been of great benefit to our dairy industry in empha- 
sizing in the minds of butter-makers the necessity of 
thorough cleanliness in the creamery and the importance 
of the proper conduct of the ripening process for the 
manufacture of high-grade butter. They have enabled us 
to make butter of uniform fine flavor and of greater keep- 
ing quality than was previously possible. 

Where abnormal fermentations appear, and the butter 
produced is diseased or "off flavor," the evil may be 
remedied by the use of pure cultures. In case of the estab- 
lishment of an export trade of American butter of high 
quality, the pure cultures used in connection with previous 
pasteurization of the milk or cream will prove of great 
benefit, insuring uniform goods and perfect keeping quality 
in the product. 

The use of pure culture-starters in the manufacture of 
Cheddar cheese is of recent date, and but limited experience 
has so far been gained in this line. According to the 
testimony of some of our leading cheese-makers, and of 
recent experiments conducted at Wisconsin experiment 
station, their use for this purpose is very beneficial, cheese 
of improved, clean flavor and high keeping qualities being 
produced. Pure cultures may therefore be safely recom- 
mended for this purpose. The general method of applica- 
tion is similar to that followed in the manufacture of pure 
culture butter. The starter is propagated in sterilized 
milk and kept at go° F. for one day, when it will be slightly 
lobbered, having an acidity of about .8 per cent. Prof. 
Decker, late of the Wisconsin Dairy School, gives the fol- 
lowing hints on the use of the starter by the cheese-maker : 

*'The starter is introduced into the milk by rubbing it 



BUTTER. 267 

through a fine hair sieve so as to break up curd particles. 
If too large quantities of starter is used, there is a tendency 
to produce a sour cheese. The best results are obtained 
when a 2 per cent starter, of the acidity given, is added. 

" In propagating the starter from day to day care must be 
taken to keep it free from contamination. It should always 
be prepared in a covered vessel that has previously been 
sterilized, and the milk used should first be pasteurized 
(or sterilized) and chilled before adding the 'seed.' Some 
of the original starter should be taken for ' seed,' not the 
whole milk after the starter has been added. 

" The starter cannot be used for cheese-making if the milk 
is overripe, which is the case when the rennet test is 65 
seconds or under (see p. 282). In sweet milk, testing by 
the rennet test 120 seconds, the addition of a 2 per cent 
starter will increase the acidity, so that the rennet test will 
act in 70 seconds. 

" With sweet milk the use of a pure lactic starter will 
result in the saving of 3-5 hours in time. With tainted 
milk in which the acid develops imperfectly the addition 
of the starter aids in producing the acidity required for the 
manufacture of Cheddar cheese." 

BOYD'S PROCESS OF CREAM RIPENING. 

By John Boyd, Chicago, 111. 

It is an accepted fact that the fine aromatic flavor and 
also the keeping properties of butter depend largely upon 
the treatment of the cream from the time it is separated 
from the milk until it is ready for the churn, that is, in 
the best possible condition to yield the maximum quantity 
and the best quality as to flavor, texture, solidity, etc., 
free from casein and other undesirable substances. This 
perfect condition of cream is understood by the term 
" ripened cream," and when this condition can be pro- 
duced by the butter-maker with uniformity, regardless of 
the seasons of the year or extremes of climate, the process 
may be reckoned as nearly perfect as possible, and not 
yntil then. It is most desirable that the process be as sim- 



268 DAIRYING. 

pie as possible, in fact within the reach of every creamery 
and dairyman in the country, and all the means required to 
attain these results can and should be a part of every dairy 
and creamery, large or small. 

Boyd's process or system of ripening cream or milk is 
the result of years of practical work in a private dairy of 
about 40 Jersey cows. After it had been thoroughly tested 
and used, during all the seasons of the year, it was pat- 
ented in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, 
and given to the public in the year 1889, a very consider- 
able time in advance of any of the artificial methods of 
ripening, now being advocated under the representations 
of " pure cultures of bacteria." 

When first introduced it was met by a sea of opposition 
from the experts, who would see nothing good in it, but 
gradually it has been making its way in a quiet manner 
into popularity until at present it is being successfully 
practised in every state in the Union, and is gaining favor 
every day with the most practical butter-makers. 

The apparatus necessary to practise the process supplies 
all the conditions required to produce a uniform result every 
day in the year, the temperature of the lactive ferment 
and also of the cream being entirely under the control of 
the operator during the entire process. 

The directions for using the process, which go with every 
purchase of the apparatus, are as follows: 

To i7iake the Best Fer7nent. — Take milk from fresh-milk- 
ing cows (that from pregnant cows will not answer); sub- 
merge the milk warm from the cows in Cooley cans in ice 
water. Skim at twelve or twenty-four hours, as most con- 
venient, and use this skimmed milk for making the fer- 
ment; or select milk as above, run it through a separator, 
and save the skimmed milk for making the ferment. 

The skimmed milk so selected is then brought to a tem- 
perature of 90°, in a water bath, being constantly stirred 
during the operation of heating. As soon as the tempera- 
ture of the milk reaches 90°, place it in the fermenting-can 
and close the cover tightly, having first rinsed out the can 
with warm water. Allow the can to remain closed for 



BUTTETt. 569 

Jwenty or Iwenty-four hours, when the ferment will be 
found thick and in the proper condition for mixing with 
the cream or milk to be ripened. 

How to use the Ferment. — First bring the cream or milk 
in the vat to a temperature of 66° to 70° Fahrenheit, when 
the ferment is to be thoroughly mixed with the cream or 
milk in the proportion of 2 per cent of the ferment to the 
amount of cream or milk to be ripened. Remove one or 
two inches of the top of the ferment, which is not desirable 
to use, and strain the rest through a fine strainer or hair 
sieve into the milk or cream. The finer the ferment is 
broken up the more effective its operation will be. After 
the cream or milk and ferment are well stirred and mixed 
at the above temperature, the vat must be closed and al- 
lowed to remain undisturbed until the cream is ripened, 
requiring from twenty to twenty-four hours for the opera- 
tion; the cream when ripe will be found thick, mildly acid, 
and in the proper chemical condition, requiring only to be 
cooled to the proper temperature for churning. 

Churning. — The best temperature for churning depends 
so much upon circumstances that the range is very wide, 
from 55° to 68° Fahrenheit. The richer the cream in but- 
ter-fat the colder the temperature should be, and the more 
milk the cream contains the higher the churning tempera- 
ture should be. After the cream or milk and ferment are 
mixed, no more stirring is admissible, as any agitation of 
the cream afterwards retards the ripening process. 

Butter by Shallow-pan Creaming. — Raise the cream in a 
temperature of about 60° F. ; avoid as. much as possible 
skimming milk in with the cream; ripen at about 05^ F. ; 
churn at 60° to 62°. Free the granules of butter from the 
buttermilk by washing in water, temperature about 55°. 
Salt, I oz. to I lb. of butter. 

Butter by Deep Cold Setting and Cooley System. — Raise the 
cream in ice-water; milk may be skimmed in with the 
cream or not as desired; with the Cooley cream a very 
considerable portion of milk added to the cream will pro- 
duce no bad effects. Ripen at a temperature of 68° by 
adding lactive ferment; churn at temperature of 58° to 65°; 



270 DAIRYING. 

wash the granules in water, temperature 50° to 55°, and 
salt as above. 

Butter fro7n Separata?- Cream. — Cool the cream from sep- 
arator to 66° to 68°, add lactive ferment, and churn at 55° to 
58°, according to the percentage of butter-fat in the cream. 
The cream should be cooled after ripening so that the 
temperature of the cream will register not over 55°. This 
cooling requires time and patience, but will be rewarded 
with solid granules. Wash in water at 50° to 52°. Salt, 
I oz. to I lb. of butter. 

Good butter should not contain more than 16% of water 
(and may contain as little as 8^) when properly worked. 
It is sufficiently worked when it presents a delicate elastic- 
ity to the touch, and when broken should show a perfect 
uniformity of grain and color. 

THE ALiKALiINE TABLET TEST OF ACIDITY IN 
MILK OR CREAM.* 

By Prof. E. H. Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School. 

Since this test was first described by the author, a 
number of changes have been made in the way of 
using it. 

Reliable results are now obtained with less and simpler 
apparatus than when the test was originally published. 
At the present time it is used for two purposes. 

Pirst. — For testing the acidity of milk. To detect those 
lots which are apparently sweet, but too nearly sour for 
pasteurizing, for retailing, or for making the best butter 
or cheese. 

Seco7id.—Yor testing the acidity of each lot of cream dur- 
ing its ripening, to trace the progress of its souring, and to 
show whether the fermentations should be hastened or 
checked in order to have the cream in a certain acid condi- 
tion at a given time and ready for churning. 

In addition to the tablets, the only apparatus necessary 
for testing the acidity of either milk or cream is a common 
white teacup, a 4, 6 or 8 oz. bottle, and a No. 10 brass car- 
tridge-shell or similar measure. The testing solution is 

* For a more detailed discussion of the alkaline tablet test, see Furring- 
ton-Woll, " Testing Milk and its Products,'' Sixth Ed., pp. 109-130. 



BUTTER. 271 

prepared by dissolving one tablet in one ounce of water. 
This is the standard. Four ounces of the tablet solution are 
made by filling a four-ounce bottle with water and adding 
to it four tablets. The No. lo shell is filled with the milk 
cr cream to be tested. This measured quantity is poured 
into a white cup. The same measure is then filled with 
the tablet solution and this is poured into the cup. The 
two liquids are thoroughly mixed and the color of the mix- 
ture is noted. If there is no change of color, another 
measure of tablet solution is added. This is continued 
until the sample which is being tested becomes of a pink 
color. As soon as the pink color is obtained no more tablet 
solution is added. The per cent of acid in the sample 
tested is found from the number of measures of tablet 
solution it is necessary to add to one measure of the 
sample in order to produce the pink color. Each measure 
of tablet solution represents one tenth of one per cent 
acid. 

A more exact testing of acidity can be made by using a 
17.6-cc. pipette for measuring the milk or cream to be 
tested and a loo-cc. graduated cylinder for the tablet solu- 
tion. 

Five tablets are dissolved in 97 cc. of water in the 
cylinder, and this solution is gradually poured into the 
17.6 cc. of milk or cream in a white cup. When sufficient 
tablet solution has been added to produce the pink color in 
the sample tested, the operator observes on the scale of 
the graduated cylinder the number of cc. tablet solution 
used. Each cc. of this tablet solution is equal to 0.0090 gr. 
lactic acid, and when 17.6 cc. of a sample is tested, each cc. 
of the tablet solution is equal to .01 per cent acid in the 
sample. 

Milk does not smell or taste sour until it contains 
about three-tenths of one per cent acid. It has been 
found, however, that milk containing over two tenths per 
cent acid cannot be safely pasteurized, because such milk 
sours very soon. These tablets supply a quick means of 
selecting the sweetest of different lots of sweet milk, by 
showing which contain less than two tenths of one per 
cent acid. 



27^ DAlRYlKa. 

Cream is often ripened so far that the quality of the but- 
ter is injured. The usual method of the butter-maker for 
testing the sourness of the cream is by the sense of smell 
and taste. A tablet test shows exactly what per cent of 
acid each lot of cream contains, so that the butter-maker 
is better able to manufacture a uniform grade of butter by 
ripening his cream to the same point before it is churned. 
Sweet cream contains about 0.15^ acid. Cream has reached 
the proper point for churning when it contains about six- 
tenths per cent acid. As the souring of cream is largely 
influenced by the temperature at which it is held, the but= 
ter-maker is able to know from an acid test of the cream 
whether it should be warmed or cooled in order to have it 
ready for churning at a given time and just sour enough 
for making butter of good flavor (see page 275^). 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF MANNS' TEST 

FOR ASCERTAINING THE ACIDITY OF 

CREAM. 

1. Stir the cream thoroughly; insert small end of pipette 
in cream and draw until nearly full; then put the finger over 
upper end of pipette and allow cream to escape slowly (by 
admitting air) until mark on neck of pipette is reached. 
Transfer to a tumbler, rinse the pipette three times with 
lukewarm water, adding the rinsing water to the cream in 
the tumbler. Now add to contents of the tumbler three 
drops of the solution marked " Indicator" (phenolphtalein). 

2. Fill the burette up to the o mark with the solution 
marked " Neutralizer" (alkali solution). 

3. While constantly stirring the cream with the glass rod, 
allow the liquid to flow from the burette into the tumbler 
until the entire contents of the tumbler shows a pink tinge. 
Stop adding the solution from the burette the moment the 
color is permanent. 

4. Read the level of the liquid remaining in the burette. 
The reading shows the amount of acid present. 

The experience of those using the test indicates tha'. 

where the acidity of the cream is right, to secure the best. 

results in yield and flavor of butter, from 38 to 42 cc. of the 

.^eutralizer will be required for the test. It is a simple 



BUTTER. 



273 



matter for each butter maker to learn by experiment the 
exact degree of acidity and churning temperature suited to 
the best results, and with these as standards reduce the 
process of butter-making to a certainty. By testing his 
cream in the afternoon the butter-maker will be able to set 
it to ripen at such a temperature that it will show the proper 
acidity for churning next morning. 

In testing the milk for cheese-making the same directions 
are to be followed, excepting that a much less acid condition 
is required; probably 15-20 cc. will give the best results. 
The whole numbers are cubic centimeters; the intermediate 
divisions are fractions of a cubic centimeter. 

Precautions in Using the Test. — The solution marked "Neu- 
tralizer" is prepared of a certain strength. It is essentia) 
that this strength remain constant. Never let this solution 
stand without a stopper. Keep in glass or stoneware. 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. (Konig.) 





Aver- 
age. 


Mini- 
mum. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Sweet 
Cream 
Butter. 


Sour 
Cream 
Butter. 


No. of analyses included 

Water 


302 
13-59 
84-39 

.66 


4-15 

69.96 

.19 

•45 
.02 


4.78 
1. 16 

15.08 


.0 

12.93 

.68 

1-25 


11 

13.08 


Fat 


84.26 


Casein 


.81 


Milksugar 

Lactic acid 


.66 


Ash . . . 


1. 19 








100.00 





AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SWEET 
CREAM- AND SOUR CREAM-BUTTER. 

(Fleischmann.) 





Made from Sweet 
Cream, not Salted. 


Made from Sour 
Cream, Salted. 




Not 
washed. 


Washed. 


Not 
washed. 


Washed. 


Water 


Per ct. 

15.00 

83 47 

.60 

.80 

•13 


Per ct. 

15.00 

83-73 

•55 

.60 

.12 


Per ct. 

12 00 

84.75 

■50 

■55 
2.20 


Per ct. 

12.50 

84.62 

.48 

.^o 

2.00 


Fat 


Casein and albumen 

Other organic substances . 

Ash, or ash and salt 



274 



DAIRYING. 



anaijYses o^^ premium butters, fat-stock 

SHOW, CHICAGO, 1889.— IN PER CENT. (Morkow.) 



Description of Samples. 



Sweepstakes — Creamery, gathered cream 

" " whole milk 

" Dairy 

" From a grade cow 

First prize — From a Jersey cow 

" " From a Shorthorn cow 

" " From an Ayrshire cow 

" " From a Devon cow. . . 

" " From a Holstein cow 

Average 



* 










11 










u 






18 

H 




i 




q6 


9.99 


85.41 


1. 01 


94 


12.19 


82 


66 


1. 21 


03 


8.49 


86 


53 


.86 


Q.S-S 


9.71 


85 


90 


I. OS 


91 


8.99 


88 


08 


•79 


91 


12.07 


84 


79 


1-34 


93 


9-53 


86 


S3 


.81 


ar 


10.78 


86 


20 


.72 


92.5 


10.56 


«5 


S3 


.88 


92-5 


10.23 


85 


74 


.96 



ANALYSES OF FOREIGN SAMPLES OF BUTTER. 

(In Per Cent.) 



Country. 



No. of 
Anal- 
yses. 



Water, 



Fat. Curd. 



Ash 
(Salt). 



A. Salted Buttej 



Denmark 

Sweden 

Finland 

Netherlands.. 

France 

Great Britain. 

Geimany 

Italy 

Australia 

Canada 

United States. 



France 

Germany 

Great Britain. 

Austria 

Italy 

Switzerland.. 
Australia 



55 


12.86 


83.78 


1. 21 


139 


14.13 


82.57 


.98 


2 


1305 


84.11 


1.58 


4 


12.97 


84.13 


1.39 


235 


13-32 


84.48 


1.43 


322 


12.09 


84.66 


1. 14 


162 


13.38 


83.70 


1.25 


6 


11.52 


85.56 


1.07 


59 


II. 16 


85.32 


.96 


207 


8.97 


84.29 


1.44 


473 


11.44 


84.64 


1. 03 



B. Unsalted Butter. 



Average for salted butter 

" " unsalted hutter. 



S8 


13.73 


85.80 


1-39 


86 


12.03 


85.70 


a.i5 


24 


13.43 


85.64 


.80 


5 


14-15 


84.14 


1.54 


53 


13-67 


85.08 


I. II 


M 


13.76 


84.65 


1.55 


2 


10.63 


87.71 


1.38 


1676 


".95 


84.27 


1.26 


242 


13.07 


85.24 


1.57 



2.15 

2.32 
1.26 

1-51 

•77 
2. II 
1.67 
1.86 
2.56 
5-17 
2.90 



.13 
•17 
•15 
.04 

.28 

2.58 



* The standard of the scale of points in a total of 100 was : Flavor, 45 : 
grain, 30; color, 15 ; salting, 10. 
t Chiefly salt. 



BUTTER. 



275 



FORMULA FOR CALCULATING THE YIELD OF 
BUTTER. 

In ordinary dairy or creamery practice, where moderu 
methods of creaming and churning are applied, the yield 
of butter will exceed that of fat in the milk by 12 to 15 per 
cent, or i pound of fat in the milk will produce about 1.15 
pounds butter, i.e., yield of butter from 100 lbs. of milk = 
1. 15/, /being the per cent of fat in the milk. 

Fleisch?nann's formula; 

Yield of butter = 1.16/— .25 

Conversion Factor for Calculating Yield of Butter from the 
Atnotnit of Butter-fat. — The following resolution was passed 
by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and 
Experiment Stations at the annual convention of the asso- 
ciation, July, 1895: 

" Resolved, That this association recommends to the 
several stations that the results of tests of dairy cows or 
herds be expressed in terms of butter-fat, and that when 
desirable to express these records in terms of approximate 
equivalent in butter such equivalent be computed by multi- 
plying the amount of butter-fat by i\.'' (Report of Curtiss, 
Armsby, and Cooke.) 

The factor i^ is based upon the results of the Columbian 
dairy test, in which it was found that on the average 117. 3 
lbs. of butter were made from each 100 lbs. of butter-fat in 
the whole milk, and 96.67 lbs. of butter-fat of the milk was 
recovered in the butter. 

AMOUNT OF BUTTER OBTAINED FROM lOO 
KILOGRAMS (220 LBS.) OF CREAM OF DIF- 
FERENT RICHNESS. (Martiny.) 



Per Ct. Fat 


Yield of 


Per Ct. Fat 


Yield of 


Per Ct. Fat 


Yield of 


in Cream. 


Butter. 


in Cream. 


Butter. 


in Cream. 


Butter. 




lbs. 




lbs. 


i 
1 


lbs. 


15 


34-5 


22 


50.6 


29 


66 7 


16 


36.8 


23 


52-9 


30 


69.0 


^7 


39 I 


24 


■^5-2 




7^-3 


j8 


41.4 


25 


57-5 




73-6 


19 


4^-7 


26 


59 8 




75-9 


20 


46.0 


27 


h2. I 




78.2 


21 


48.3 


28 


64.4 




80.5 



275« 



DAIRYING. 



YIELD OF BUTTER CORRESPONDING TO YIELD 
OP BUTTER-FAT PER DAY AND PER WEEK, 

in Pounds. 



Fat. 



Butter. 


Fat. 


Butter. 


Fat. 


Butter. 


Fat. 



Butter. 



A. Per Day. 



0.30 
•35 
.40 
.45 
•50 

■55 
.60 
.65 
.70 

•75 
.80 
.85 
.yo 



0.35 


0.95 I 


II 




60 


1.87 


2.25 


.41 


1. 00 1 


17 




b5 


1-93 


2.30 


• 47 


1.05 1 


23 




70 


1.98 


2.35 


.53 


1. 10 I 


28 




75 


2.04 


2.40 


.58 


1. 15 I 


34 




80 


2.10 


2-45 


.64 


1.20 I 


40 




HS 


2.10 


2.50 


.70 


1,25 1 


46 




QO 


2.22 


2.55 


.76 


1.30 1 


52 




95 


2.28 


2.60 


.82 


1-35 I 


5» 




00 


2-.?3 


2.65 


.88 


1.40 I 


63 




05 


2^39 


2 70 


•93 


1.45 I 


bg 


2 


10 


2-45 


2-75 


•99 


1.50 I 


75 


2 


'5 


2-51 


2.80 


1.05 


1^55 I 


81 


2 


20 


2.57 


2.85 



B. Per Week. 



2.63 
2.68 
2.74 
2.80 
2.86 
2.92 
2.98 
3-03 
3^09 

3-15 
3.21 
3^27 
3-33 



5.00 


5-83 


7-50 


8.75 


10.00 


11.67 


12.50 


14.58 


5.10 


5-95 


7.60 


8.87 


10.10 


11.78 


12.60 


14.70 


5.20 


6.07 


7.70 


8.98 


10.20 


11.90 


12.70 


14.82 


5-30 


6.18 


7.80 


9.10 


10.30 


12.02 


12.80 


14^93 


540 


6.30 


7.90 


9.22 


10 40 


12.13 


12.90 


15-05 


5-50 


6.42 


8.00 


9-33 


10.50 


12.25 


13.0 J 


15-17 


5.60 


6.53 


8.10 


9^45 


10.60 


12.37 


13. 10 


1528 


5 •70 


6.65 


8.20 


9-57 


10.70 


12.48 


13.20 


15 40 


5.80 


6.77 


8.30 


9.68 


10.80 


12.60 


13^30 


1552 


5^90 


6.88 


8.40 


9.80 


10.90 


12.72 


13.40 


15-63 


6.00 


7.00 


8.50 


9.92 


TI.OO 


12.83 


13-50 


1575 


6.10 


7.12 


8.60 


10.03 


IT. 10 


12.95 


13.60 


15.87 


6.20 


723 


8.70 


10.15 


11.20 


13.07 


13 70 


15.98 


6.30 


7-35 


8.80 


10.27 


11.30 


i3^^8 


13-80 


16.10 


6.40 


7 47 


8.90 


10.38 


11.40 


1330 


13.90 


16.22 


6.50 


7-58 


9.00 


10.50 


11.50 


13.42 


14.00 


16.33 


6.60 


7.70 


9.10 


10.62 


11.60 


13-53 


14.10 


16.45 


6.70 


7.82 


9.20 


10.73 


11.70 


13 65 


14.20 


16.57 


6.80 


7-93 


9-30 


10.85 


11.80 


'3-77 


14.30 


16.68 


6.90 


8.05 


9.40 


10.97 


11.90 


13.88 


14.40 


16.80 


7.00 


8.17 


9-50 


11.08 


12.00 


14.00 


1450 


16.92 


7.10 


8.28 


9.60 


11.20 


II 10 


14.12 


14.60 


17-03 


7.20 


8.40 


9.70 


"•32 


12.20 


14-23 


14.70 


17-15 


7^30 


8.52 


9.80 


"•43 


12.30 


14.35 


14.80 


17.27 
17-38 


7.40 


8.63 


9.90 


"•55 


12.40 


14.47 


14.90 



Fat. 


Butter. 


Fat. 


Butter. 


.01 


.01 


.06 


.07 


.02 


.02 


-07 


.08 


•03 


.04 


.08 


.09 


.04 


.05 


.oq 


.11 


.05 


.06 


.10 


.12 



BUTTE li. 



2756 



VALUE OF 



FOR SP. GR. OF MILK FROM 



1.019 TO 1.0399. 

(See p. 233.) 



is-s- 1 


0.0000 


O.OOOI 


. 0002 


0.0003 


0.0004 


. 0005 


0.0006 


0.0007 


0.0008 


. 0009 


1.019 


1.864 


1.874 


1.884 


1.894 


1-903 


1-913 


1.922 


1.932 


1.941 


1-951 


1.020 


l.qbi 


1.970 


1.Q80 


1.990 


1.999 


2.009 


2.018 


2.028 


2.038 


2.047 


1. 021 


2.057 


2.066 


2.076 


2.086 


2.095 


2.105 


2. 114 


2.124 


2.133 


2.143 


1.022 


2.153 


2.162 


2.172 


2.181 


2.191 


2.200 


2.210 


2.220 


2.229 


2.239 


T.023 


2.249 


2.258 


2.267 


2.277 


2.286 


2.296 


2.306 


2-315 


2.325 


2.334 


1.024 


3.344 


2-353 


2.363 


2.372 


2.382 


2.391 


2.401 


2.410 


2.420 


2.430 


1.025 


2-439 


2.449 


2.453 


2.468 


2.477 


2.487 


2.496 


2.i;o6 


2.515 


2-525 


1.026 


2-534 


2 544 


2-553 


2.563 


2.573 


2.582 


2-591 


2.601 


2.610 


2.620 


1.027 


2.629 


2.638 


2.648 


2.657 


2.667 


2.676 


2.686 


2.695 


2.705 


2.714 


1.028 


2.724 


2.733 


2.743 


2.752 


2. 702 


2.771 


2.781 


2.790 


2.799 


2.809 


1.029 


2.818 


2.828 


2.837 


2.847 


2.856 


2.865 


2.875 


2.884 


2.893 


2.903 


1.030 


2.913 


2.922 


2.93T 


2.941 


2-951 


2.960 


2.969 


2-979 


2.988 


2.997 


1. 031 


3.007 


3.016 


3.026 


3 .035 


3-044 


3-054 


3-063 


3.072 


3.082 


3.091 


1.032 


3.101 


3.110 


3.120 


3.129 


3.1.38 


3.148 


3.157 


3-166 


3-176 


3-185 


1.033 


3- 195 


3.204 


3-2.3 


3.223 


3-232 


3-241 


3.251 


3.260 


3.269 


3-279 


1.034 


3.288 


3.298 


3-307 


3.316 


3.326 


3.335 


3.344 


3.354 


3-363 


3-37^ 


I -035 


3.. 3^2 


3.391 


3 400 


3-410 


3.419 


3.428 


3.438 


3-447 


3-456 


3.466 


1.036 


3-475 


3.484 


3.494 


3.503 


3.512 


3.521 


3.531 


3-540 


3.549 


3-559 


1-037 


3.568 


3.577 


3.587 


3-596 


3.605 


3.614 


3.624 


3 633 


3.642 


3 652 


1.03S 


3.661 


3.670 


3-679 


3.b8q 


3.698 


3-707 


3-717 


3.726 


3-735 


3-744 


1.039 


3.754 


3-763 


3-772 


3-781 


3.791 


3.800 


3-809 


3-818 


3.828 


3.837 



RELATION OF FAT CONTENT TO ACIDITY OF 
SKI3I.3IILK, MILK, AND CREAM. (A. Vind.) 

(See p. 272.) 







Sk 


m- 


Who 


. 




















milk. 


Milk. 






Fat contents 


per ct. 


5 per ct. 


25 per 


Ct. 


3operct. 


35perct. 


40 perct. 




cc. 


% 


cc. 


% 


cc. 


% 


CC. 


% 


cc. 


% 


cc. 


% 


Equal acidity tesi 


10 


.18 


9.5 


•17 


7-5 


14 


7 


.13 


6-5 


.12 


6 


.11 


" ' 




45 


.81 


43 




77 


34 


61 


31.5 


•57 


29 




52 


27 


.49 






48 


.86 


45.5 




82 


36 


65 


33.5 


.60 


31 




56 


29 


•Sa 


" ' 




50 


.qo 


48 




86 


37-5 


67 


35 


-63 


.32.5 




58 


30 


•S4 


*' ' 




52 


.94 


49.5 




89 


39 


70 


36.5 


.66 


34 




61 


31 


-.S6 


*' ' 




54 


-97 


51 




92 


40.5 


73 


38 


.68 


35 




63 


32.5 


..S8 


*' ' 




55 


-99 


52 




94 


41 


74 


38.5 


.69 


36 




65 


33 


.59 


« t 




57 


1.03 


54 




97 


43 


77 


40 


.72 


-M 




67 


34 


.61 


" ' 




59 


1.06 


56 


I 


01 


44 


79 


41 -S 


.75 


38. s 




69 


3S.5 


.64 




60 


1.08 


57 


1.03 


45 


81 


42 


.76 


39 


.70 


36 


.65 



9M 



DAIRTINO. 



YIELD OF BUTTER FROM MILK OF DIFFERENT 

RICHNESS. (KiRCHNER.) 

loo lbs. of milk will yield the number of pounds of butter given in the 
tab'e. (Percentage creaming, i6 per ct.; fat in butter, 83 per ct.) 



Per cent, of 
Fat in Milk. 


Per cent, of Fat in Skim-milk. 












.20 


•30 


.40 


.50 


2-5 


2.697 


2.600 


2-503 


2.406 


3.6 


2.812 


2.716 


2.618 


2.522 


2.7 


2.928 


2.832 


2.734 


2.638 


2.8 


3-044 


2.948 


2.850 


2-754 


2.9 


3.160 


3.063 


2.966 


2.869 


30 


3.276 


3.178 


3.081 


2.984 


3.1 


3-392 


.3-293 


3-297 


3.100 


3.3 


3.508 


3-409 


3-313 


3.216 


3.3 


3.624 


3-525 


3-429 


3-3.32 


3-4 


3-739 


3-641 


3-544 


3-447 


3-5 


3-854 


3-757 


3-659 


3.562 


3.6 


3-969 


3-873 


3-774 


3-677 


3-7 


4.084 


3-989 


5-890 


3-793 


3.8 


4.200 


4.105 


4.006 


3-909 


3-9 


4.316 


4.220 


4.122 


4-025 


4.0 


4-432 


4-335 


4-238 


4. 141 


4-1 


4-547 


4-450 


4-352 


4-257 


4.2 


4.663 


4-565 


4.468 


4-373 


4.3 


4-779 


4.681 


4-584 


4-489 


4-4 


4-895 


4-797 


4.700 


4.604 


4-5 


5-011 


4-913 


4.816 


4-719 


4.6 


5-127 


5.028 


4-932 


4-834 


4-7 


5-243 


5-M4 


5.048 


4-949 


4.8 


5-359 


5.260 


5-164 


5.065 


4-9 


5-474 


5-376 


5.280 


5.i8i 


S-o 


5 589 


5-492 


5-395 


5-297 



BUTTER. 



.2: 



l>OUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED TO MAKE ONE 
POUND OF BUTTER. 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk. 
2.8.. . 
3.0... 
3.2... 
3.4... 
3.6... 
3.8... 
4.0... 
4.2... 

4.4... 
4.6... 
4.8... 



Lbs. of Milk per 

I lb. of Butler. 

31. 1 

,. . . . 29.0 

,. . . 27.2 

.... 25.5 

. . . . 24.2 

22.9 

21.7 

20. 7 

19.8 

18.9 

18.I 



Per Cent 



Fat 



in Milk. 
5.0... 
5.2... 
5.4... 
5.6. . 
5.8... 
6.0. . . 
6.2... 

6.4... 

6.6... 
6.8... 
7.0... 



Lbs. of Milk pel 

I lb. of Butter. 

17.4 

16.7 

16.I 

15.5 

15.0 

14.5 

14.0 

13-6 

13-2 

12.8 

12.4 



Lbs. of Milk per 
X lb. of Butter. 



10 
II. 
12. 

13. 
14. 

16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23 
24. 

25 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk. 
. 8.70 
. 7.90 
. 7-25 
. 6.69 
. 6.21 
. 5.80 

• 5-44 
. 5.12 

■ 4.83 

■ 4.58 
. 4.35 
. 4.14 

• 3-95 

• 3.78 
. 3.62 
. 3-47 



Lbs. of Milk per 
I lb. of Butter. 
26 



27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33- 

34- 

35 

36. 

37. 
38. 
39- 
40. 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk. 
3-34 
3.22 

3.II 
, 3.00 
, 2.90 

2.81 
. 2.72 
, 2.64 
. 2.56 
. 2.48 

2.42 
■ 2.35 
. 2.29 
. 2.23 

2.17 



The two preceding tables are based on ordinary creamery 
experience, i pound of fat in the milk producing 1.15 
pounds of butter. 



378 



DAIRYING. 



NUMBER OF POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED FOR 
MAKING ONE POUND OF BUTTER. (Kirchner.) 



Lbs. Butter per 
loo lbs. of Milk. 


Lbs. Milk per i 


Lbs. Butter per 
100 lbs. of Milk. 


Lbs. Milk per i 


lb. of Butter. 


lb. of Butter. 


2.4 


41.67 


3-8 


26.32 


2.5 


40.00 


3.9 


25.64 


2.6 


38.46 


4.0 


25.00 


2.7 


37.04 


4.1 


24-39 


2.8 


35-71 


4.2 


23.81 


2.9 


34.48 


4.3 


23.26 


30 


33-33 


4.4 


22.73 


3-1 


32.26 


4-5 


22.22 


3-2 


31-25 


4.6 


21.74 


3.3 


30.30 


^'l 


21.28 


3-4 


29.41 


4.8 


20.83 


3-5 


28.57 


4.9 


20.41 


3-6 


27.68 


5.0 


20.00 


3-7 


27.03 


5-5 


18.18 



DISTRIBUTION OF MILK INGREDIENTS IN 
BUTTER MAKING. (Cooke.) 











d 






Proportion 




'O 




c 




rt 




of the Total 




50 






V^ 




Milk Fat 




*-> 


^ 


.Q 


•-CA 


.C 


found in the 




H 


fc 


U 


< 


^ 


■< 


Product. 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




1000 lbs. of whole milk 


130.0 


40.0 


26.0 


70 


4Q-S 


7-S 




800 lbs. of skim-milk. ... 


78.0 


2-4 


22.0 


6.0 


41.2 


6.4 


6 


200 lbs. of cre^Tin. 


52.0 


^7-6 


4.0 


I .0 


8.S 


I.I 


94 


187 lbs. of buttermilk 


14.91 


.8 


3-77 


.94 


8.3 


I.I 


2 


43.3 lbs. of butter 


37-09 


36.8 


•23 


.06 




... 


92 



SCORE FOR JUDGING BUTTER. 

World's Fair, Chicago, 
1893. 

Flavor 45 

Grain 25 

Color 15 

Salting 10 

Packing 5 

100 



BUTTER. 



279 



This score has been adopted in judging butter exhibits 
at various State fairs and dairymen's conventions during 
late years; in some cases the score has been changed to 
50 for flavor and 5 for salting, otherwise as above, or to 
flavor 40, grain 30, with other points as above. 

Minimum number of points entitling exhibitors to a 
premium: 

Wisconsin Dairymen's Association, 93, 95, and 94 points, 
for dairy, separator creamery, and gathered-cream butter, 
respectively. 

New York State Fair, 75 points. 

engijIsh scaijE of points for judging 

BUTTER. (MCCONNELL.) 

Perfection, 100. 
25 Flavor : nutty, aromatic, sweet. 
20 Moisture : as free from beads of water as possible. 
10 Solidity : firm, not melting easily, nor softening. 
25 Texture : closeness of grain, distinct fracture ; not 

greasy. 
10 Color : natural, even. 

10 Make : remaining points, cleanliness, salting, nicely 
put up, etc. 



SCORE IN JUDGING PROFICIENCY OF BUTTER- 
MAKERS. 

(Adopted by British Dairy Farmers' Association.) 

Butter-makin g. 

Preparation of cream 4 

" "utensils 6 

Ventilation of churn 4 

Judgment and skill in churning.. 15 

Washing butter in churn 10 

Use of strainer 4 

" "thermometer 7 

" "butter-worker 7 



Salting 5 

Making up 15 

Flavor and color . 7 

Texture and freedom from moist- 
ure 7 

Cleaning utensils 4 

Rapidity and cleanliness of work- 
ing 5 



280 



DAIEYING. 



ANALYSES OF AMERICAN DAIRY SALTS. 

(In Per Cent.*) 



Name of Brand. 



Acme 

Anchor 

Ashton 

Bradley 

Canfield&Wheeler 
Diamond Crystal.. 

Empire 

Genesee 

Higgins 

Le Roy 

Lone Star 

Vacuum Pan 

Warsaw 

Worcester 

Coleman 

Rice 

Windsor 











TJ 























U 


a -u 


."H 
o 

s 

u 

B 


1 

a 

3 




5 

B 

3 




u 

B 
3 

(LI 

C 


V 

3 




§1 






13 


73 


bo 


s • 





^0 


^0 


C/J 


u 


u 


S 




>: 


< 


u 


98.39 


1.22 


.12 


.07 


•03 


17 


•944 


24 


97 


79 


1.48 


.28 


.08 


.06 


31 


1. 125 


31 


9» 


01 


1.42 


.20 


.16 


.03 


18 


•703 


39 


Q« 


27 


.90 


.40 


.07 


.02 


34 


.876 


63 


q8 


18 


I. 21 


.22 


.12 


.04 


23 


1.062 


26 


99 


18 


•54 


.19 


.05 


•03 


01 


.880 


33 


98 


S8 


.66 


•54 


.10 


.02 


ID 


•933 


32 


98 


27 


I. II 


.24 


.07 


.04 


16 


•875t 


3i+ 


98 


19 


1.44 


.14 


.10 


.02 


II 


.907 


28 


98 


IS 


I-3I 


•39 


.08 


.01 


06 


1.094$ 


25$ 


98 


24 


1.46 


.06 


.08 


.06 


10 


1.072 


28 


98 


GO 


115 


.^b 


• I.-; 


•03 


31 


1.075 


30 


98 


43 


.9^ 


.40 


.06 


•03 


12 


.962 


39 


98 


S7 


.92 


•25 


.07 


.02 


17 


1. 149 


29 


98 


21 


1.48 


.10 


.04 


.08 


09 


.865 


28 


97 


57 


1. 8s 


.12 


.09 


.07 


30 


.828 


3° 


98 


43 


.90 


•51 


.04 


.03 


II 


i.i07§ 


26§ 



* See IFoH, " A Study of Dairy Salt," Bulletin No. 74, Wis. Exp. Sta. 
t Butter-salt; cheese-salt, appar. sp. gr. .671; rate of solubility 34 sec. 
t Butter-salt; cheese-salt, appar. sp. gr. .944; rate of solubility 37 sec. 
§ Butter-salt; cheese-salt, appar. sp. gr. .891; rate of solubility 32 sec. 



CHEESE. 281 



V. CHEESE. 

HOW AMERICAN CHEESE IS MADE. 

By Prof. John W. Decker, of Ohio Dairy School, Author of 

"Cheddar Cheese Making:." 

A. Factory oi' Chcddav Chopse. 

As soon as the milk is received at the factory it is heated 
to 86" F. and a rennet test made.* 

If the milk is not ripe enough it is held till the proper 
acidity is reached. If the milk is very sweet a starter of 
sour milk is added to hasten it. The milk should be set at 
such a ripeness that there will be one eighth of an inch 
of acid (fine strings) on the hot-iron in two hours and a half 
from the time rennet is added. 

If the cheese is to be colored the color is added just be- 
fore setting the milk. When it is thoroughly stirred in, 
we can add the rennet. The amount of rennet to be used 
depends on the kind of cheese desired. If a soft fast-cur- 
ing cheese is wanted, enough rennet is used to coagulate 
the milk in fifteen to twenty minutes ; if a slow-curing 
cheese, enough to coagulate in thirty to forty-five minutes. 
It is stirred in thoroughly in four or five minutes and then 
the dipper is run lightly over the top, to keep the cream 
down till the milk begins to thicken, when a cloth cover is 
spread over the vat and the coagulation allowed to continue 
till the curd will break clean over the fingers. 

* The Monrad rennet test is recommended. It consists of a i6o cc, tin 
cylinder for measuring- the milk, a 5 cc. pipette, a 50 cc. graduated flask, 
and a half-pint tin basin. The rennet is measured with the 5 cc. pipette 
and delivered into the 50 cc. flask, the rennet adhering to the pipette being 
rinsed into the flask with a little water. The flask is then filled with water 
to the 50 cc. mark, and the solution mixed by shaking. The milk, the 
temperature of which should be 86° F., is measured in the tin cylinder, 
emptied into the half-pint basin, and 5 cc. of the dilute extract is measused 
into the 160 cc. of milk, and the number of seconds required to curdle it 
noted. If a few specks of charcoal are scattered on the milk and the milk 
started into motion around the dish with a thermometer, the instant of 
curdling can be noted by the stopping of the specks. They will stop so 
suddenly as to seem to start back in the opposite direction. The Marshall 
rennet test is a very convenient device for ascertaining the exact moment 
of coagulation. 



282 DAIRYING. 

The curd is then cut, using the horizontal knife first and 
cutting lengthwise of the vat. The cutting is finished from 
this point with the perpendicular knife, the curd being 
thus cut into cubes one half inch in diameter. 

Without waiting for the curd to settle, we begin stirring 
very carefully with a wire basket, and rub the curd off from 
the sides of the vat with the hand. As soon as this is done 
we turn on the heat carefully and raise the temperature 
slowly to g8° F. ; when the curd is firm enough a wooden 
rake is used to stir it. The temperature is raised at the 
rate of one degree in four or five minutes. 

As soon as the temperature of 98° F. is reached we begin 
trying the curd on the hot-iron for acid. We must have the 
curd firm enough when the whey is drawn, so that a double 
handful pressed together will fall apart readily. This is 
the test for a proper cooking. When fine threads one 
eighth of an inch in length show on the hot iron the whey 
is ready to draw. This should be two and a half hours 
from the time the milk was set. The whey is drawn off by 
means of a whey gate and a whey strainer, and the curd 
dipped into a curd-sink or on racks placed in the vat. 
There should be racks in the curd-sink over which a linen 
strainer-cloth is thrown. The curd is dipped onto this 
cloth and the whey drains through. The curd should be 
stirred, to facilitate the escape of the whey, and is then left 
to mat together. In fifteen or twenty minutes it can be cut 
into blocks eight or ten inches square, and turned over. 
After turning several times these blocks can be piled two 
or three deep. The acid will continue to develop in the 
curd ; when it will string about an inch it will have as- 
sumed a stringy or meaty texture, so that it will tear like 
the meat on a chicken's breast. 

It is then run through the curd-mill and cut up into small 
pieces. These pieces are stirred up every little while to air. 
In the course of another hour and a half there will be two 
inches of acid on the curd ; it will smell like toasted cheese 
when pressed against the hot-iron, and when a handful is 
squeezed, half fat and half whey will run out between the 
fingers. It is then ready to salt. It is cooled to 80° F. be- 



CHEESE. 283 

fore salting. If a fast-curing cheese is wanted we use two 
pounds per hundred pounds of curd; two and a half pounds 
are used for a medium cheese, and three pounds for a slow- 
curing cheese. The curd should be spread out at an even 
thickness and the salt applied evenly. It should then be 
thoroughly stirred several times. 

As soon as the harsh feeling has left the curd it is ready 
to go to press. The screw should be turned slowly, but 
fast enough so that a stream of brine is kept flowing. The 
full pressure should not be applied for ten minutes. In an 
hour the bandages can be turned down, and full pressure 
is then applied. The continuous-pressure gang-press made 
by D. H. Burrell and Co., is the most satisfactory, as the 
cheese will not loosen during the night. The next day the 
cheese are placed on the shelves and the rinds greased. 
They should be turned and rubbed every day. The tem- 
perature of the curing-room should be 60° to 65° F., and 
moisture should be supplied in dry weather. The cheese 
are boxed and shipped in about a month. 

B. Cheese Made on the Farm. 

For a farm dairy it will be much easier to make up 
sweet-curd cheese than sour-curd cheese, described in the 
preceding. For this purpose it is necessary to have a curd- 
knife, a cheese-vat, and a cheese-press; the method of pro- 
cedure is as follows : 

The milk, which must be clean and sweet, is heated to 
90° F., and if any artificial color is required it is added at 
this time. Set the milk with enough rennet extract to co- 
agulate in 20 to 30 minutes. About four ounces of Hansen's 
rennet extract per 1000 lbs. of milk will prove a sufficient 
amount. 

As soon as the curd will break over the finger cut it 
fairly fine ; then raise the temperature one degree in 3 
minutes until 108° F. is reached, at the same time stirring 
carefully to keep the curd particles apart. Hold at 108° F. 
till the curd is firm, that is, till the pieces do not feel mushy. 
Then draw the whey and stir till the whey is well drained 
out. Salt at the rate of 2| lbs. of salt to 100 lbs. of curd, 
and when the salt is well worked in, put it to press. The 
cheese should be cured in a room (preferably a cellar; 



284 DAIRYIN^G. 

where the temperature can be kept at 60° F., otherwise it 
will spoil. The cheese should be cured for two to three 
months before it is sold. 

CAUSES OF TAINTED MILK. 

The causes of tainted milk have been classified as fol- 
lows, by the Swiss scientist, Dr. Gerber: 

1. Poor, decayed fodders, or irrational methods of feeding. 

2. Poor, dirty water, used for drinking-water or for the 
washing of utensils. 

3. Foul air in cow-stable, or the cows lying in their own 
dung. 

4. Lack of cleanliness in milking; manure particles on 
udder. 

5. Keeping the milk long in too warm, poorly ventilated 
and dirty places. 

6. Neglecting to cool the milk rapidly, directly after 
milking. 

7. Lack of cleanliness in the care of the milk, from which 
cause the greater number of milk taints arise. 

8. Poor transportation facilities. 

9. Sick cows, udder diseases, etc. 

10. Cows being in heat. 

11. Mixing fresh and old milk in the same can. 

12. Rusty tin pails and tin cans (Boggild). 

DETECTING BAD MILK: DIRECTIONS FOR OP- 
E RATING THE WISCONSIN CURD-TEST. 

Cheese-makers are often troubled with so-called Jioaiing, 
pinholed, ox gassy curds which produce cheese defective in 
flavor and texture. The cause of this poor quality of cheese 
often seems beyond the power of the operator to determine. 
While he has heretofore usually laid it to "bad " milk, it 
was often impossible for him to locate the trouble. By 
means of the curd-test the operator is usually able to tell 
which patron or patrons are furnishing the bad milk; and 
often in the patron's herd it will be shown to be due to a 
single cow. This test as here described originated at the 



CHEESE. 285 

Wisconsin Dairy School in 1895. Apparatus for making 
the test is now furnished by dairy supply-houses, although 
a home-made test can be improvised by using pint fruit- 
jars and a wash-tub or some small tank, in which the jars 
of milk can be heated in warm water. 

Details of the Test. — i. A pint glass jar which has 
been thoroughly cleaned, and sterilized with live steam, is 
filled about two thirds full with the milk to be tested. 

2. It is not necessary to take an exact quantity of milk, 
but each jar should be plainly labeled. 

3. The numbered jars of milk are placed in a tank or tub 
of water which is heated until the milk in the jars has a 
temperature of 98° F. 

4. The thermometer used should first be rinsed in boiling 
water before being placed in another sample, to avoid con- 
tamination of good milk with bad milk. 

5. When the milk has reached a temperature of 98° F., 
add 10 drops of rennet extract to each jar of milk, and mix 
by giving the jar a rotary motion, 

6. The rennet soon curdles the milk, and the curd is al- 
lowed to stand for about twenty minutes until it is firm. 

7. The curd should then be cut into small pieces with a 
case-knife, and after settling the whey is poured off. 
The best tests are made when the separation of whey is 
most complete. By allowing the samples to stand for a 
short time, more whey can be poured off, and the curd 
thereby rendered firmer. 

8. The jars containing the curd are then again placed in 
the tub and the temperature of the water around the jars is 
maintained at or near 98° F. by adding hot water from time 
to time. The tub or vat is covered, the curds are allowed 
to ferment in the sample jars for six to twelve hours and 
are then examined. 

9. The impurities in any particular sample will cause 
gases to be developed in the curd, so that when it is cut 
with a knife pin-holes or gas-holes can be easily detected. 
Milks having a putrefactive or stinking odor should be 
classed as bad, even though the curd has a good texture 
and is free from pin-holes. 



286 DAIRYING. 

The curds in this test are made under conditions most 
favorable for developing in them any defects which may be 
caused by the presence of undesirable bacteria that are 
brought to the milk by dust, dirt, and other impurities. 

The odor of a curd should be noticed as soon as the cover 
is taken from a jar. This is often sufficient to convince a 
patron that the milk is tainted, and may suggest to him the 
particular cause of the odor by its resemblance to some fa- 
miliar smell that he recognizes and can remove. 

A solid firm curd shows that the milk is pure and clean 
and has been properly handled. The rather firm curds 
which show fine pin-holes when cut with a knife are indi- 
cations of some of the worst impurities in milk, while the 
spongy curds show the presence of bacteria which in some 
cases have developed sufficient gas to float the curd. Per- 
sons familiar with milk soon learn to use the evidence 
obtained by this test to distinguish between good and bad 
milk, and to convince the milk-producers of the value of the 
test. (Dairy Bull., Wis. Exp. Station.) 

THE FERMENTATION TEST. 

The Gerber fermentation test (modified by Monrad) fur- 
nishes a convenient method for discovering tainted milk on 
the farm or at the factory. The test consists of a tin tank 
which can be heated by means ol a small lamp, and into 
which a rack fits holding a certain number of cylindrical 
glass tubes ; these are all numbered and provided with a 
mark and a tin cover. In making the test the tubes are 
filled to the mark with milk, the number of each tube being 
recorded in a notebook opposite the name of the particular 
patron whose milk was placed therein. The tubes in the 
rack are put in the tank, which is two thirds full of water ; 
the temperature of the water is kept at 104-106° F. for six 
hours, when the rack is taken out, the tubes gently shaken, 
and the appearance of the milk, its odor, taste, etc., carefully 
noted in each case. The tubes are then again heated in the 
tank at the same temperature as before for another six 
hours, when observations are once more taken of the ap- 



CHEESE. 287 

pearance of the milk in each tube. The tainted milk may 
then easily be discovered on account of the abnormal coagu- 
lation of the sample. 

Gerber concluded from over 1500 tests made by this 
method : 

1. That good and properly handled milk should not co- 
agulate in less than 12 hours, nor show anything abnormal 
when coagulated. 

2. If it does; it shows the milk to be abnormal, either on 
account of its chemical composition or because it is impreg- 
nated with too much ferment (rather, abnormal ferments, 
causing an undesirable fermentation). 

3. Milk from sick cows, cows that are strongly in heat, 
or cows with diseased udders will always coagulate in less 
than 12 hours. 

4. Only about 20 per cent of the tests coagulated within 
12 hours. 

Monrad proposes the following rules for the adoption of 
this test by cheese factories : 

1. * A proper journal is kept of all the tests. 

2. " The patrons whose milk is tainted have to pay the 
cost of making the test. 

3. " The patrons whose milk is tainted will be kept track 
of, and in case there is any loss caused thereby they will 
have to stand it. 

4. " Patrons having tainted milk shall be notified at once, 
and another test made three days later. If then the milk 
is still bad, a test of each cow's milk is made on the farm 
and otherwise the reason sought to be discovered, and until 
then the milk will be refused." 



388 DAIRYING. 

DETERMINATION OP HUMIDITY IN CHEESE- 
CURING R003IS. 

The proper degree of humidity in the cheese-curing 
room will vary with different kinds of cheese and at differ- 
ent stages of the curing process. Green cheese should be 
placed in a somewhat drier curing-room than older ; the 
latter kinds, according to Fleischmann, require a relative 
humidity of go'-gs", against 85°-90° for green cheese. 

Kirchner states that the humidity of curing-rooms should 
not, in general, go below 80° or above 95°. Temperatures 
from 5o°-7o° F. are preferable in the curing-room. 

The following temperatures and percentages of humidity 
are recommended by Martiny: 

Per Cent 

Deg, Fahr. Humidity. 
(a) For hard cheeses (Swiss, etc.). 

Green 59-^3 9«-95 

Half cured 54-59 85-90 

Cured 50-54 80-95 

{h) For soft cheeses (Limburger, etc.) 50-59 80-95 

In the interior of our continent it is somewhat difficult 
to obtain as much moisture in the air of curing-rooms as is 
represented by the preceding figures ; the relative humid- 
ity of ordinary curing-rooms in this region, therefore, but 
rarely goes over 60". A higher degree of humidity may 
be obtained by hanging wet sheets of canvas in the curing- 
room (Decker), or by similar devices, as described in the 
thirteenth ann. report of Wis. Experiment Station. 

Self-recording thermometers are to be recommended for 
use in curing-rooms. For observation of relative humidity 
a wet and dry bulb thermometer, a Mittchoff's hygrometer, 
or a Lambrecht's polymeter may be used to advantage. 
Any of these instruments may be obtained through dealers 
in chemical glassware or dairy <^upplies; the prices range 
from $8 to $30. 



cnEEPT:. 



289 



TABLE SHOAVING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN 
THE AIR OF CUR1NG-R003IS. (King.) 

Directions.— Notice Uiat the table is in three column sections. Find 
air temperature in first column, then find wet-bulb temperature in second 
column, same division. In third column opposite this is relative humidity. 

Exaviple. — Air temperature is 50", in first column; wet-bulb is 44°, in 
second column, same division. Opposite 44° is 61, which is the percent 
of saturation, or the relative humidity of the air. 

Caution.— Y-AX\ the bulb briskly for a minute or two before taking reading. 







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290 



DAIRYING. 



HUMIDITY JN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS.— Cbw. 



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en K ERE. 



291 



HUMIDITY 


IN THE AIR OF CURING ROOMS. - 


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70 


82 




66 


59 




75 


91 




72 


71 




71 


86 
91 




67 
68 


63 

66 




76 


95 


79 


73 


75 


























73 


95 


76 


69 


70 




65 

66 


49 




75 
76 


I'. 






















62 


47 




71 


78 




67 


56 




77 


91 




64 


51 

55 




72 
73 




















87 




6q 


63 




66 


47 


. 


65 


5« 




74 


91 


■78 


70 


67 




67 


51 




66 
67 


62 
66 




75 


95 




7t 


71 




68 
69 


54 












72 


75 




57 


75 


68 


70 




64 


49 




73 


79 




70 


61 




69 


74 




65 


52 




74 


«3 




71 


64 




70 


78 




66 


56 




75 


87 


80 


72 


68 




71 


82 


77 


67 


59 




76 


91 




73 


72 




72 


87 




68 


63 










74 
















73 


91 




69 


67 




66 


50 




75 


79 




74 


95 




70 


71 


79 


67 


53 




76 


B3 










71 


74 




68 


57 




Vs 


«7 
92 



SCORE FOR JUDGING CHEESE. 





World's 
Fair 
1893. 


New York, 1894. 


Wisconsin 
Dairymen's 
Assoc. 1894. 




For 
Export. 


For Home 
Trade. 




45 
20 
15 
10 
10 


45 

■ 30 

15 

10 


50 
25 
15 

10 


45 
30 
15 


Texture (and body) 

Color 


Make up (finish) 


10 




100 


100 


100 


100 



ENGLISH SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING 

CHEESE. (MCCONNELL.) 

Perfection, 100. 

35 Flavor: nutty, buttery. 

25 Quality: mellow, rich, melting on tongue. 

15 Texture: solid, compact. 

15 Color: natural-like, even. 

10 Make: remainder, due to good making, as cleanliness, 

salting, perfect rind, etc. 

100 



295 



DAIKYING. 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. (Konig.) 



Cream cheese.. 
Full cream cheese 
Half-skim cheese. . 

Skim cheese 

Sour-milk cheese.. 
Whey cheese 



ui 








1 , 


«4H «*^ 






c<! <u 




Ort 


rt 
^ 


i 




2gg 


27 


36.33 


40.71 


18.84 


1.02 


143 


38.00 


30.25 


2S-35 


1-43 


21 


39-79 


23.92 


29.67 


1.79 


41 


46.00 


11.65 


34.06 


3-42 


15 


52.36 


16.03 


3b. 04 


.90 


7 


23.66 


16.91 


8.90 


45-75 



3.10 

4-97 
4-73 
4.87 
4.07 
4.78 



VARIETIES AND ANALYSES OF CHEESE. 

(MCCONNELL.) 



Water, 



Casein, 



Fat. Sugar. 



Ash. 



British^ pressed— 

Cheddar, 3 months 

6 " 

" average 

Cheshire, new , 

" old , 

Derby 

Dunlop 

Gloucester (single) , 

(double) 

British, soft — 

Cream , 

Stilton 

French, soft- 
Brie , 

Camembert 

Gervais (cream) 

Neufchatel , 

French, pressed— 

Gruyere 

Roquefort 

Dutch— 

Edam (round) 

Gouda(flat) 

German — 

Backstein 

Swiss — 

Backstein 

Bellelay(soft) 

Emmenthaler 

Italian — 

Gorgonzola 

Parmesan 

Various — 

American factory 

Foreign skim, average. . 

German sour milk 

Whey cheese (cow) 

" (goat) 

Centrifugal skiin-milkcheese 



Per ct. 
36.17 
31.17 
34-38 
36.96 
32.59 
31.68 
38.46 
32.50 
35.96 

30.65 
30.35 

50.3s 
50.16 
52-94 
44-47 

34-87 
31.20 

36.28 
21.90 

73.10 

35.80 
37-59 
35-14 

44.04 
31-34 

25-93 
46.08 
63.63 
24.21 
25.29 
50-5 



Per ct. 
24.93 
26.31 
26.38 
24.08 

32.51 
24.50 
25.87 
28.51 
21.74 

4-94 
28.85 

17.18 
21.85 
11.80 
14.60 

25-87 
27.63 

24.06 
46.95 

19.80 



24.44 
28.88 
30.86 

28.06 
41.99 

38.12 

33-37 
25.27 
9.06 
9.10 

43-1 



Per ct. 
31.83 
.33-68 
32.71 
29-34 
26.06 
35.20 
31.86 
28.23 
26.83 

62.99 
35-39 

25.12 
21.13 
20.75 
33.70 

28.91 
33- 16 

30.26 
24.81 

2.80 

37 40 
30.05 
31.00 

29.84 
19.22 

31.55 

10.54 

4.85 

20.80 



Per ct. 
3.21 
4.91 

5-17 
4-53 
4-38 



2.58 



41.01 
29.21 



Per ct. 

3.86 
3-93 
3-58 
4-45 
431 
4.24 
3.81 
4.66 
4.07 

I-I5 
3-82 

5.41 
3-89 
2.93 
2.99 

3-84 
6.01 

4-90 
6.3a 



2.36 
3-48 
4.00 

3-87 
6.25 

4-38 
3-81 
3-67 
4-92 
3.88 
5-2 



CHEESE. 



29-^ 



DISTRIBUTION OF INGREDIENTS IN CHEESE- 
MAKING. (Cooke.) 





Total 
Solids. 


Fat. 


Casein 

and 

Albumen. 


Milk- 
sugar. 


Ash. 


Cheese 

Cheese-press drips . . . 
Whey 


Per cent 
54-2 
• 9 
44-9 


Per cent 

90.6 

•4 

9.0 


Per cent 
22.0 


Per cent 
50 
1-5 

93-5 


Per cent 

36 

I 

63 








lOO.O 


100. 


100. 


100.0 


TOO 



DISTRIBUTION OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS 
IN CHEESE-MAKING. (Cooke.) 





Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric Acid 


Potash. 


jooo lbs. of whole milk 

000 lbs of whey . . ... 


lbs. 
5-30 
1-35 
3-95 


lbs. 

1.90 

1.23 

.65 


lbs. 











FORMULAS FOR FINDING YIELD OF CHEDDAR 
CHEESE. 

The approximate yield of green cheddar cheese from 100 
lbs. of milk may be found by multiplying the per cent of 
fat in the milk by 2.7; if /designate the per cent of fat in 
the milk, the formula will therefore be: 
Yield of cheese = 2.7/. 

The factor 2.7 will only hold good as the average of a 
large number of cases. In extensive investigations during 
three consecutive years Van Slyke found that the number 
of pounds of green cheese manufactured for one pound of 
fat in the milk varied from 2.51 to 3.06, the average figures 
being 2.73, 2.71, and 2.72, for 1892-94, respectively. For 
cured cheese the factor will be somewhat lower, viz., about 
2.6 on the average. 

If the percentage of solids not fat and of fat in the sam- 
ple of milk are known, the following formula, published by 
Dr. Babcock in the twelfth report of the Wisconsin Ex- 



294 



DAIRYING. 



periment Station, will give close results {s = solids not fat; 
/=fat): 

Yield of green cheese = i.58(i^ + -Qi/)- 

This formula is based on a water content of 37 per cent 
in the cheese; it may be readily changed to suit any par- 
ticular per cent. The average percentages of water in 
green cheese in Van Slyke's investigations referred to 
above were 36.41, 37.05, and 36.70 per cent for the years 
1892-94, respectively. 

If the percentages of casein and fat in the milk are both 
known, the yield of cheese may be calculated from the fol- 
lowing formula, which will give fairly correct results: 

Yield of cheese = i,i/-f- 2.5 casein. (Babcock.) 



YIELD OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CHEESE FROM 
100 liBS. OF MILK. (Fleischmann.) 



Cured 
Cheese. 




Soft full-cream cheese intended for immediate 

consumption... 

Very soft full-cream cheeses (Brie, Camembert, 

Neufchatel, etc.) 

Somewhat firmer, full-cream soft cheeses (Lim- 

burger, Remondon cheese, etc ) 

Soft half-skim cheese (Limburg), i^ lbs. butter and 
Soft skim cheeses (^ /a Brie, C amembert, Livarot. 

Backstein, etc.), 3-3.4 lbs. butter and 

Roquefort cheese (made from sheeps' milk) 

Full-milk, from American and English cheeses, 

and .75 lbs. whey-butter. 
Full-milk from Dutch and Swiss cheeses 

and .75 lbs. whey-butter. 

Half-skim firm cheeses, 1.6 lbs. butter and 

Skim-milk cheese, 3-3.5 lbs. butter and 

Sour-milk cheese, 3-3.5 lbs. butter and 

Scandinavian "Gammelost " 

and 3-3.5 lbs. butter. 
Whey cheese (" Mysost ") 

and butter and skim-milk cheese. 



Whey in manufacture of full-cream cheese, 73-88 lbs., average 81 lbs. 
" »' " " half-skim " 72-80 " " 76 " 

•' " " " skim cheese 66-76 " '* 71 " 

Under similar conditions 5-7 lbs. less of whey are obtained in the manu- 
facture of soft cheese than in that of firm cheese. 

The ^oss sustained in the manufacture of clieese amounts on the average 
to 3 lbs. per 100 lbs. of milk, not considering the losses incurred in the 
curing of the cheese. 



CHEESE. 



295 



AVERAGE LOSS OF AMERICAN CHEDDAR 
CHEESE IN CURING. (Babcock.) 



15 


Period 
Covered. 


Average 
Age. 


No. of 
Cheese. 


Total 
Weight 
Green. 


Total 
Weight 
Cured. 


Loss. 




Days. 


Days. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Per Cent. 


I 


I-IO 


6 


09 


2,812 


2,741.5 


70-5 


2.51 


2 


II-20 


16 


242 


7,356.9 


7,077.0 


279.9 


3. to 


3 


21-30 


25 


298 


8,530.5 


8,160.4 


370-1 


4-34 


4 


31-60 


41 


417 


12,353-3 


11,684.4 


668.9 


5. 41 


5 


Over 60 


T41 


172 


6,244.4 


5,736.0 


508.4 


8. II 



Total number of cheese in preceding trials 1235. 

Average weight of green cheese .. 30.2 lbs. 

" temperature of curing-room 61° F. (range 55-70°). 

" humidity of air in curing-room 50 per cent. 



liOSS IN WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF 

CHEESE DURING CURING. (Martinv.) 

Per Cent. 
Swiss (Emmenthal) — 

made from whole milk will lose in 5 months 8-14 

" " half-skimmed milk will lose in S " 15-20 

" " skim-milk will lose in 6 " 12-15 

Tilsit- 
made from whole milk will lose in 4 " 12-25 

Dutch (Gouda) — 

made from whole milk will lose in 3 " 20-28 

" " skim " *' " " 4 " 15-25 

American Cheddar — 

made from whole milk will lose in 2 " 5 

" " " 4 " 6-7 

Limburger or Remoudon — 

made from T/hole milk will lose in 2I " 16-28 

Brick cheese — 

made from skim-milk will lose in 2^ " 15-30 

Camembert, Brie, Neufchatel, etc. — 

made from whole milk will lose in 2 " 20-35 

Sour-milk cheese — 

made from whole milk will lose in 3^ " 50-60 



>06 



DAIRYINGS. 



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CHEESE. 297 



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298 



DAIRYING. 



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CHEESE. 



t-O*) 



WHEY TO BE ALLOWED AT CHEESE FACTORIES 
FOR QUANTITIES OF MILK FR03I 30 TO 3GO 
POUNDS. (.Robertson.) 

The fi{?ures in the columns denote the inches of whey. 



Weight of 




Diameters 


of Miik-cans 


in Int 


hes. 






Milk in 
Pounds. 
















20 


19 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 


12 


30 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 


35 


2 




3 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


40 


3 




3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


45 


3 




4 


4 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


50 


3 




4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


55 


4 




5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


60 


4 




5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


II 


65 


4 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


70 


5 


5 


6 


7 


7 


8 


10 


II 


13 


75 


5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


14 


80 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


10 


II 


12 


15 


85 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


13 


16 


90 


6 


7 


7 


9 


9 


II 


12 


14 


17 


95 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


13 


15 


18 


100 


7 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


14 


16 


19 


105 


7 


8 


9 


9 


II 


13 


'5 


16 


19 


no 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


13 


15 


17 


20 


115 


8 


9 


10 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


21 


120 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


14 


17 


19 


22 


125 


8 


9 


10 


" 


13 


15 


17 


19 


23 


130 


9 


10 


II 


)2 


'3 


16 


18 


20 


24 


135 


9 


10 


II 


12 


14 


j6 


19 


21 




140 


9 


10 


12 


13 


14 


17 


20 


22 




145 


10 


II 


12 


13 


15 


17 


20 


23 




150 


10 


II 


12 


14 


15 


18 


21 


24 




155 


10 


II 


13 


IS 


16 


19 


22 






160 


11 


12 


13 


15 


16 


19 


22 






165 


II 


12 


14 


16 


17 


20 


23 






170 


II 


12 


14 


16 


17 


20 


23 






175 


12 


13 


15 


16 


18 


21 


24 






180 


12 


13 


15 


17 


iS 


22 


24 






185 


12 


14 


15 


^7 


19 


22 








190 


13 


14 


16 


18 


T9 


23 








195 


13 


H 


16 


18 


20 


23 








200 


13 


15 


17 


18 


20 


24 








205 


14 


15 


17 


19 


21 










210 


14 


16 


18 


^9 


21 










215 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 










220 


15 


16 


18 


20 


23 










225 


15 


17 


19 


21 


24 










230 


15 


17 


19 


21 


24 










235 


16 


18 


19 


22 












240 


16 


18 


20 


22 












245 


16 


18 


20 


23 












250 


17 


19 


21 


23 












260 


17 


19 


22 


24 












270 


18 


20 


22 














280 


19 


21 


23 














290 


19 


22 


24 














300 


20 


23 


24 














310 


21 


23 
















320 


21 


24 
















330 


22 


















340 


23 


















350 


23 


















360 


24 






' 











300 DAIRTIITG. 



VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND 
CHEESE FACTORIES. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TAKING AND PRESERVING 
COMPOSITE SAMPLES OF MILK IN CREAMER- 
IES AND CHEESE-FACTORIES. (Farrington). 

The modern creamery and cheese-factory uses the Bab- 
cock test for determining the richness of the milk delivered 
by each patron. The most common and satisfactory method 
of paying for the milk according to its test is to take a small 
sample of each lot of milk each day, pour this into a cov- 
ered glass jar containing a small amount of some preserva- 
tive, and at the end of a week or ten days test this composite 
sample. The essential features of the process are given in 
the following directions: 

1. Provide a pint or quart jar or bottle for each patron. 

2. Label each bottle with a number, giving the same 
number to a patron on the milk-recording sheet. 

3. Composite-test sample-bottles made for this purpose 
with a tin cover and numbered brass tag wired to the neck 
of each bottle can be obtained of creamery supply-firms. 

4. These sample-bottles should be placed on shelves 
within easy reach of the man at the weigh-can, and pro- 
tected from the light. 

5. A small quantity of powdered potassium bichromate, 
corrosive sublimate, formaline, borax, or peservaline is put 
into each clean bottle, to keep the milk from souring until 
testing-day. Some of these preservatives are put up in 
tablet form, each tablet containing the necessary amount 
to use in one sample. 

6. After each lot of milk is poured into the factory weigh- 
can and weighed, a small amount of it is dipped from the 
can and poured into the proper sample-bottle. 

7. These samples are usually taken with a small (i-oz.) 



CREAMERIES AND CITEESE FACTORIES. 301 

tin dipper, a Scovell sampling-tube, or from a drip in the 
conductor-spout. 

8. Each lot of milk sampled must be sweet, containing 
no clots, lumps of curdled milk, or small butter-granules. 
The sample should be taken just as soon as the milk is 
weighed, and while it is evenly mixed. 

g. The use of a small (i-oz.) tin dipper for taking the 
composite sample has been proved to be practically correct. 
As the quantities of milk delivered from day to day by 
each patron vary but little, the error introduced by taking 
the same amount of milk for each sample is too small to 
be worth considering in factory work, and this method of 
composite sampling is usually adopted in separator cream- 
eries and in cheese-factories, where the payment of the 
milk is based on its quality. 

10. When it is desired to vary the size of the samples ac- 
cording to the quantity of milk delivered each day by a 
patron, it is necessary to use a "milk-thief" or a Scovell 
sampling-tube. In using either of these tubes, the size of 
the sample is regulated by the amount of milk in the weigh- 
can. In all cases cylindrical sampling-cans must be used. 

11. Continue adding a sample of each patron's milk to his 
particular jar every time he delivers milk, for a week or ten 
days ; then test this composite sample. 

12. The composite sample-jars should be kept covered, 
to prevent loss by evaporation, and in a cool, dark place. 
Every time a new portion of milk is added to the jar it 
should be given a horizontal rotary motion to mix the cream 
already formed in the jar with the milk, and to rinse off the 
cream sticking to its side. Unless this is done every time 
fresh portions of milk are added to the jar the cream on the 
milk becomes lumpy and sticks in patches to the side of 
the jar, thus making it nearly impossible to evenly dis- 
tribute this cream through the entire sample. 

13. Composite samples having patches of dried cream on 
the inside of the jar are the result of carelessness or igno- 
rance on the part of the operator. 

14. A test of the composite sample takes the place of the 
daily tests of each lot of milk and gives accurate informa- 



302 DAIRYING. 

tion regarding the average quality of tlie milk delivered by 
each patron during the period of sampling. 

15. The weight of butter-fat which each patron brought 
to factory in his milk during the time covered by the sam- 
pling is obtained by muliiplying the total weight of milk 
delivered during the sampling period by the test of the 
composite sample, divided by 100. 

PAYMENT OP MILK AT CREAMERIES AND 
CHEESE FACTORIES.* 

Numerous systematic and extensive experiments by vari- 
ous scientists have proved that the value of milk for both 
butter and cheese production stands in direct proportion to 
its fat content. Patrons of separator cheese and butter 
factories should therefore receive payment for the milk de- 
livered by them according to the percentage of fat in the 
milk, i.e., according to the quantity of fat delivered in their 
milk. The same applies to gathered-cream factories as 
well. 

The tables given on pp. 305-306 will aid in the calculation 
of the value of milks of different richness, according to 
prices agreed upon. In paying for the milk delivered by 
patrons, four, or, essentially, three, different methods are 
followed at different factories, all of which are just to all 
parties concerned. The methods and the directions for 
using the tables in each case are given below. The tables 
and discussions entered upon are largely taken from Ver- 
mont Experiment Station Bulletin No. 16. 

* Sto. Farrington-Woll^ "Testing Milk and its Products," Sixth Ed., 
pp. 185-196, 248-251. 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 303 

METHODS OF PAYMENT FOR MILK AT CHEESE 
AND BUTTER FACTORIES. 

1. A certain price is to be paid per one hundred lbs. of milk 
containing a definite per cent of fat (e.g., $i.oo per lOO lbs. 
of four per cent milk). By referring to the second half of 
the table on p. 271 we find $1.00 opposite 4.00 per cent of 
fat; the figures in the same column as $1.00 then give the 
value of 100 lbs. of milk containing percentages of fat rang- 
ing from 3.00 to 5.00; e.g., 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk is 
worth 75 cents, of 4.5 per cent milk $1.13, of 5.40 per cent 
milk $1.35, etc. 

2. A certain price is to be paid per pound of fat delivered. 
If 21 cents is the price agreed upon we multiply .21 by three, 
and the product, .63, gives the amount in dollars to be paid 
per 100 lbs. of three per cent milk. The column in which 
the figure .63 occurs opposite 3.0 per ct. is then to be used 
in the calculations as long as the price is paid, and 3.5 per 
cent milk will be paid with 73 cents per 100 lbs., 5.3 per ct. 
milk $1.10 per 100 lbs., etc. 

Example : Patron A delivers 840 lbs. of milk during one 
week, containing, according to the test made, 4.3 per cent 
fat. If the price agreed upon per pound of fat was as be- 
fore stated, he is to receive 90 cents per 100 lbs. of milk, or 
$7.56 in all. 

Patron B, sending 625 lbs. of milk testing 3.45 per cent, 
will receive 6.25 X .72 = $4.50, etc. In the table only 
tenths of per cents are given; 3.45 being half-way between 
3.40 and 3.50, for which percentages 71 and 73 cents are to 
be paid respectively, we multiply by the mean of the two 
values, or .72. If a test differs less than five-hundredths 
from any percentages given in the table, the nearest figure 
is chosen. 

3. Patrons are to be paid ivhat is received for the butter, less 
a certain amount for cost of making and marketing. Multiply 
each man's milk by the per cent of fat it contains, and the 
sum of the several products will be the total amount of fat 
contained in the day's milk. Divide the pounds of butter 
made from the milk by the pounds of fat it contained, to 



304 DAIRYING. 

find how much butter each pound of fat makes. Multiply- 
ing the amount received per pound of butter, less the cost 
of making, etc., by this last result will give the amount to 
be paid for each pound of fat delivered. 

Example: Suppose the patrons furnish milk containing 
in all 400 lbs. of fat, which made 460 lbs. of buLter, selling 
for 27 cents per pound. The expense of making the butter 
is found to be, e.g., 4 cents per pound. 27-4= 23 cents; 
460 divided by 400 equals 1.15; 23 multiplied by 1.15 equals 
26.45, which is the amount, in cents, to be paid per pound 
of fat delivered; 26.45 X 3 = 79-35, or nearest 79 cents, is 
then the money to be paid for 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk, 
and (see table) 90 cents for 100 lbs. of 3.40 per cent milk, 
$1.24 for 100 lbs. of 4.7 per cent milk, etc. 

4. A certain price is to be paid per lOO lbs. of milk of average 
quality. Find the total fat contained in the milk as before; 
divide this amount by the total weight of milk delivered, 
and the result will be the average per cent of fat in the 
milk. Starting from this per cent at the left of the table, 
go to the right until the price per 100 lbs. agreed upon is 
reached; the perpendicular column in which this figure is 
found is the one to be used. Example: Suppose milk of 
average quality is to be paid $1.00 per hundred pounds, 
and the farmers furnish 8500 lbs. of milk, containing in all 
440 lbs. of fat; 440 divided by 85.00 then equals 5.18, the 
number nearest to which in the table is 5.20 per cent. To 
the right of 5.20 per cent $1.00 is found in the column 
headed .58, which column would be the one to use. 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 



305 



PRICE OF MILK OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS PER 
100 POUNDS. 



P.ct. 
Fat. 




Price per i 


00 lbs. of Milk 


, in dollars and cents. 




3.00 


I. GO 


•97 


■94 


.91 


.88 


.86 


•83 


.8t 


•79 


•77 


3.10 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


■94 


.91 


.89 


.86 


■84 


.82 


•79 


3.20 


1.07 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


94 


.91 


.89 


.86 


•85 


.82 


3-30 


I. 10 


1.07 


1.03 


T.OO 


•97 


•94 


•92 


.89 


.87 


.84 


340 


I-I3 


1. 10 


1.06 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


■94 


•92 


.90 


.87 


n. CO 


I--7 


^•13 


1.09 


1.06 


1.03 


1 .00 


■97 


•95 


•93 


.89 


■^ 60 


1 .20 


1. 16 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.06 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


•95 


.92 


3 70 


1.23 


1. 19 


1. 16 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.06 


1.03 


>.oo 


.98 


•94 


3.80 


1.27 


1.23 


1. 19 


^•i5 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.06 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


3 -90 


1.30 


1 .26 


1.22 


1. 18 


1. 15 


I. II 


1.08 


1.06 


1.03 


1. 00 


4.00 


1-33 


I 29 


1.25 


1.21 


1. 18 


1. 14 


I. II 


1.08 


1.06 


1.02 


4. to 


1-37 


1.32 


1.28 


1.24 


1. 21 


1. 17 


1. 14 


I. II 


1.08 


I ■05 


4.20 


1.40 


1-35 


i^3i 


1.27 


1.24 


1.20 


1. 17 


1. 14 


I. II 


1.07 


4-30 


^•43 


1-39 


1-34 


1.30 


1.26 


1.23 


1. 19 


1.17 


1. 14 


1. 10 


4 40 


1.47 


1.42 


1.38 


^•33 


1.29 


1.26 


1.22 


1. 19 


1. 16 


1. 12 


4.50 


I -50 


1.4s 


1. 41 


1.36 


1.32 


1.29 


I 25 


1.22 


1. 19 


^•i5 


4.60 


1-53 


1.48 


1.44 


139 


1-35 


1-31 


1.28 


1.25 


1. 21 


1. 17 


4 70 


^•57 


1.52 


1.47 


1.42 


1.38 


1^34 


^•3i 


1.28 


1.24 


1.20 


4.80 


1.60 


I 55 


1.50 


1^45 


1. 41 


1-37 


1.33 


1.30 


1.27 


1.23 


4.90 


1.63 


1.58 


1-53 


1.48 


1.44 


1.40 


1.36 


1^33 


1.29 


1-25 


5.00 


1.67 


1. 61 


1.56 


1.52 


1.47 


1^43 


1-39 


1.36 


1.32 


1.28 


5.10 


1.70 


T.65 


1-59 


^•55 


1.50 


1.46 


1.42 


1-39 


1-35 


1.30 


5 20 


1-73 


1.68 


1.63 


1.58 


1-53 


1.49 


1.44 


1. 41 


^•37 


1-33 


5-30 


1.77 


1. 71 


1.66 


1.61 


1.56 


i-Si 


1.47 


1.44 


1.40 


1-35 


5-40 


1.80 


1.74 


1.69 


1.64 


1-59 


154 


i^50 


1.47 


1.42 


1.38 


5-50 


1.83 


1-77 


1.72 


1.67 


1.62 


^•57 


1-53 


1.50 


145 


1. 41 


5.60 


1.87 


I 81 


1-75 


1.70 


1.65 


1.60 


1.56 


^■52 


1.48 


r.44 


5-70 


I. go 


1.84 


1.78 


173 


1.68 


1.63 


1.58 


1-55 


I 50 


1.46 


5.80 


1-93 


1.87 


1. 81 


1.76 


1. 71 


1.66 


1. 61 


1-57 


1-53 


1.49 


5- 9-^ 


1.97 


1.90 


1.84 


1.79 


1.74 


1.69 


1.64 


1.60 




1.51 


0.00 


2.00 


1.94 


1.88 


1.82 


1.76 


1. 71 


1.67 


1.62 


'1^8 


^■54 



3.00 


•75 


■73 


•71 


.70 


.68 


.67 


■65 


.64 


•63 


.61 


3.10 


78 


•75 


•73 


.72 


.70 


.69 


.67 


.66 


•b5 


•b3 


3.20 


.80 


.78 


.76 


•75 


•73 


•71 


.69 


.68 


.67 


.65 


3^30 


•83 


.80 


.78 


•77 


•75 


•74 


.72 


.70 


.69 


.67 


3^40 


•85 


•83 


.81 


•79 


•77 


.7b 


•74 


•73 


•71 


.b9 


3 50 


.88 


■ 8=; 


•83 


.82 


•79 


.78 


.76 


•75 


•73 


•71 


3.60 


.90 


.88 


.85 


.84 


.82 


.80 


.78 


•77 


■75 


•73 


3 •70 


•93 


.90 


.88 


.86 


.84 


•83 


.80 


■79 


■77 


.75 


3.80 


.95 


•93 


.90 


.89 


.86 


.85 


.82 


.81 


.80 


•77 


3-90 


.98 


•95 


.92 


.91 


.88 


■ 87 


•85 


.83 


.82 


•79 


4.00 


1. 00 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.91 


.89 


.87 


.85 


• 84 


.81 


4.10 


I ■03 


1 .00 


•97 


■96 


•93 


.91 


.89 


■87 


.86 


•83 


4 20 


1.05 


1.02 


1.00 


.98 


■95 


•94 


.91 


.90 


.88 


.85 


4^30 


1.08 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


.9b 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


4.40 


1. 10 


1.07 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


.95 


■94 


.92 


.90 






DAIRYING. 



PRICE OF MILK PER 100 FOVSDS.—Contifjued. 



P.ct. 
Fat. 




Price per 


[oo lbs. 


of Milk, in dollars and cents. 




4-5° 


^•13 


1. 10 


..0. 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


•97 


.96 


.94 


.92 


4.60 


1. 15 


1. 12 


1. 10 


I 07 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


■^t 


•94 


4.70 


1. 18 


1-15 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.07 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


.96 


4.80 


1.20 


1. 17 


1. 14 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.07 


1.07 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


4.90 


1.23 


1.20 


1. 17 


1.14 


I. II 


1.09 


1.07 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


5-00 


1.25 


1.22 


1. 19 


1. 16 


1. 14 


I. II 


1.09 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


5.10 


1.28 


1.24 


1. 21 


I. 19 


1. 16 


1.13 


I. II 


1.09 


1.06 


1.04 


5-20 


1.30 


1.27 


1.24 


I. 21 


1. 18 


1. 16 


1-13 


I. II 


1.08 


1.06 


5- 30 


I 33 


T.29 


1.26 


1.23 


1.20 


1. 18 


115 


1. 13 


1. 10 


1.08 


540 


1-35 


1.32 


1.29 


1.26 


1.23 


1.20 


1. 17 


115 


1. 12 


1. 10 


5 50 


1.38 


1-34 


1-31 


1.28 


125 


1.22 


1.20 


1.17 


1. 14 


i.i5 


5.60 


1.40 


1-37 


1.34 


X.30 


1.27 


1.24 


1.22 


1 19 


1. 17 


1. 14 


5-70 


1-43 


1-39 


1.36 


1-33 


1.30 


1.27 


1.24 


1. 21 


1. 19 


1.16 


5.80 


1-45 


1. 41 


1.39 


1-35 


1.32 


1.29 


1.26 


1.23 


1. 21 


1. 18 


5.90 


1.48 


1.44 


1.41 


1.38 


1-34 


I-3I 


1.28 


1.26 


1.23 


1.20 


6.00 


1.50 


1.46 


1-43 


1.40 


1.36 


1-33 


1.30 


1.28 


1.25 


1.22 



3.00 


.60 


•59 


•58 


•57 


•56 


•55 


•54 


•53 


•52 


•51 


•50 


3.10 


.62 


.61 


.60 


•59 


.58 


•57 


•56 


•55 


•54 


•53 


•52 


3.20 


.64 


•63 


.62 


.61 


.60 


•59 


•58 


•57 


•55 


•54 


•53 


3^30 


.66 


•65 


.64 


•63 


.62 


.60 


•59 


.58 


•57 


•56 


•55 


3.40 


.68 


.67 


.66 


.65 


•63 


.62 


.61 


.60 


•59 


.58 


•57 


3-50 


.70 


.69 


.68 


.66 


•65 


■64 


•63 


.62 


.61 


•59 


•58 


3.60 


•72 


•71 


.70 


.68 


.67 


.66 


•65 


.64 


.62 


.61 


.60 


3-70 


•74 


•73 


■71 


.70 


•69 


.68 


.67 


•65 


• 64 


•63 


.62 


3.80 


.76 


■75 


•73 


.72 


•71 


.70 


.68 


.67 


.66 


•65 


.63 


3.90 


•78 


■77 


.75 


■74 


■73 


•71 


.70 


.69 


.67 


.66 


•65 


4.00 


.80 


•79 


•77 


.76 


•75 


•73 


■72 


•71 


• 69 


.68 


.67 


4.10 


.82 


.81 


•79 


.78 


.76 


•75 


•74 


-72 


•71 


.70 


.68 


4.20 


.84 


•83 


.81 


.80 


• 78 


■77 


•75 


• 74 


•73 


•71 


.70 


4^30 


.86 


.84 


•83 


.82 


.80 


•79 


•77 


.76 


•74 


•73 


•72 


4.40 


.88 


86 


■85 


•83 


.82 


.80 


•79 


•78 


.76 


•75 


•73 


4 50 


.90 


.88 


•87 


•85 


.84 


.82 


.81 


•79 


•79 


.76 


•75 


4.60 


.92 


.90 


•89 


■87 


.86 


.84 


■83 


.81 


.80 


•78 


•77 


4.70 


•94 


.92 


.91 


.89 


.88 


.86 


•li 


•83 


.81 


.80 


•78 


4.80 


.96 


•94 


•93 


•91 


.90 


.88 


.86 


.85 


.83 


.81 


.80 


4.90 


.98 


.96 


•94 


•93 


.91 


.90 


.88 


.86 


.85 


•83 


.82 


5.00 


1. 00 


.98 


.96 


•95 


•93 


.91 


.90 


.88 


.86 


.85 


.83 


5.IO 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•96 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


.86 


•^5 


5.20 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


■Iz 


5^30 


1.06 


1.04 


I 02 


1. 00 


•99 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


5 40 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


■99 


■97 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


5-50 


1. 10 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


•99 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.92 


5.60 


1. 12 


1. 10 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


i.oa 


1. 00 


.98 


■97 


•95 


•93 


5-7° 


1. 14 


1. 12 


1. 10 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•97 


•95 


5.80 


1. 16 


1. 14 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.07 


1.05 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•97 


5-90 


1. 18 


1. 16 


I-I3 


I. II 


1.09 


1.07 


1.05 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


6. CO 


I 20 


1. 18 


i^iS 


^•i3 


I. II 


1.09 


1.07 


I 05 


1.03 


1.02 


1 .00 



CREAMERIES AND CllEKSK FACTORIES. 307 

DIRECTIONS FOR 3IAKING DIVIDENDS IN 
CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES 

According to the Per Cent of Fat in Milk Delivered. 

(S. M. Babcock, in " Hoard's Dairyman.") 

Find the amount of fat contained in the milk of each 
patron for any period desired, by multiplying the pounds 
of milk expressed in hundreds by the per cent of fat found 
by the test. Add together the amount of fat from all the 
patrons, thus obtaining the total pounds of fat delivered at 
the factory. Deduct the expenses of manufacture, etc., 
from the money received from sales, and divide the re- 
mainder by the total fat. This gives the price to be paid 
for each pound of fat. Multiply the pounds of fat de- 
livered by each patron by the price; the product will be 
the amount which he is to receive. 

If it is desired to know the number of pounds of butter 
made from each patron's milk, divide the total yield of but- 
ter by the total fat delivered; the quotient will be the 
amount of butter made from one pound of fat. The fat 
delivered by each patron multiplied by this figure will give 
the pounds of butter to be credited to each patron. 

The accompanying table gives the butter yield from loo 
lbs. of milk, when the pounds of butter from one pound of 
fat range from i.io to 1.20, and for milks containing from 
3 to 6 per cent of fat. To use the table find in the upper 
horizontal line the number corresponding most nearly to the 
number of pounds of butter from one pound of fat. The 
vertical column in which this falls gives the pounds of 
butter from 100 pounds of milk containing the per cents of 
fat given in the outside columns. 

Example : A creamery receives during one month 250,000 
lbs. of milk, which contained 9531 lbs. of fat; the yield of 
butter for the same period was 10,983 lbs., which sold for 
29 cents per pound, bringing $3185.07. The expense for 
making, etc., was four cents per pound, amounting to 
$439.32, leaving $2745.75 to be divided among the patrons. 
Dividing this sum by 9531, the total number of pounds of 
fat gives 28.8 cents per pound for the fat. This multiplied 
by the number of pounds of fat in each patron's milk gives 
the amount which he should be paid. 



.log 



DAIRYING. 



The number of pounds of butter, 10,983, divided by 9531, 
the number of pounds of fat, gives 1.152 pounds of butter 
from each pound of fat. The column headed 1.15 in the 
table is nearest to this ratio, and will therefore give the 
butter obtained from 100 lbs. of milk containing different 
per cents of fat. 

If a patron delivered 9420 lbs. of milk containing 3.2 per 
cent of fat during the period considered, his milk would 
have contained 301.44 lbs. of fat, which at 28.8 cents per 
pound would have amounted to $86.81. It would have 
made 301.44 X 1.152 = 347-26 lbs. of butter. In the column 
headed 1.15 in the table, opposite 3.2 per cent of fat, we 
find 3.68, which is the number of pounds of fat from 100 
lbs. of this patron's milk. The error from the use of the 
table in this way will never amount to more than | ounce 
per 100 lbs. of milk. 

Yield of Butter from One Hundred Lbs. of Milk, in Lbs. 



c 






Lbs. 0^ 


iutter 


per Pound of Fat. 










p., 


t.IO 


I. II 


1.12 


1. 13 


1. 14 


1-15 


1. 16 


1. 17 


1. 18 


1. 19 


1.20 


01 

t 


3-0 


3-30 


3-33 


3.. 36 


3-39 


3-42 


3-45 


3-48 


3-51 


3-54 


3-57 


3-60 


3-0 


3-1 


3-41 


3-441 


3-472 


3-503 


3-534 


3-565 


3-596 


3.627 


3.658 


3.680 


3-72 


3-1 


3-2 


3-52 


3-552 


3-584 


3-616 


3.648 


3.680 


3.712 


3-744 


3.776 


3.808 


3-84 


3-* 


3-3 


3.63 


3663 


3-696 


3-729 


3-762 


3-795 


3 828 


3.861 


3-894 


3.927 


3-96 


3-3 


3-4 


3-74 


3-774 


3.808 


3.842 


3-876 


3.910 


3-944 


3-978 


4.012 


4.046 


4.08 


3-4 


3-S 


3.85 


3-885 


3.920 


3-955 


3-99° 


4 025 


4.060 


4.095 


4130 


4- 165 


4.20 


3-5 


3-6 


3-96 


3-996 


4.032 


4.068 


4 104 


4.140 


4.176 


4.212 


4.248 


4.284 


4-32 


3-6 


3-7 


4.07 


4.107 


4.144 


4.18. 


4.2.8 


4-255 


4.292 


4-329 


4.366 


4-403 


4.44 


3-^ 


38 


4.18 


4.218 


4.256 


4.294 


4-332 


4-370 


4.408 


4.446 


4.484 


4.522 


^.56 


3-8 


3-9 


4.29 


4-329 


4-368 


4.407 


4-446 


4-485 


4-524 


4 563 


A. 602 


4.641 


4.68 


3-9 


4.0 


4.40 


4.440 


4 480 


4.520 


4 560 


4 . 600 


4.640 


4.680 


4.720 


4.760 


4.80 


4.0 


4.1 


4-51 


4-551 


4-592 


4-633 


4-674 


4715 


4-756 


4-797 


4.838 


4.870 


4.9? 


4.1 


4.2 


4.62 


4.662 


4.704 


4.740 


4.788 


4.830 


4-^72 


4.914 


4.956 


4 998 


5-04 


4.2 


4-3 


4-73 


4 773 


4.816 


4-859 


4.902 


4-945 


4.988 


5-031 


5-074 


5.117 


5.16 


4 3 


4-4 


4.84 


4.884 


4.928 


4.972 


5.016 


5.060 


5-104 


5.148 


5.192 


5-236 


5-28 


4-4 


4-5 


4-95 


4-995 


5.040 


5.085 


5-130 


5-^75 


5.220 


5-265 


5-310 


5-355 


5.40 


4-| 


4 6 


5.06 


5.106 


5-152 


5-^.98 


5-244 


5.290 


5-336 


5-382 


S.428 


5.474:5-52 


4-6 


4 7 


5-17 


5-217 


5.264 


5-311 


5-358 


5-405 


5-452 


5-499 


5-546 


5-59315.64 


4 7 


4.8 


5.28 


5-328 


5-376 


5-424 


5-472 


5-520 


5.568 


5.616 


5.664 


5-712 


^■t 


4 8 


4.9 


5-39 


5-439 


5.483 


5-537 


5-586 


5-635 


5.6S4 


5-733 


5.782 


5-831 


S.88 


4-9 


50 


.■5-50 


5-550 


5.600 


5 650 


5.700 


5-750 


5 800 


5.850 


S.900 


5-950 


6.00 


5.0 


5-1 


5-61 


5 -661 


5 712 


5-763 


5 814 


5-865 


5.916 


5-967 


6.018 


6.060 


6.12 


5.1 


5-2 


5 72 


5-772 


6.824 


5.876 


5-928 


5.980 


6.C32 


6.084 


6 136 


6.188 


6.24 


5-2 


5-3 


5-83 


5-883 


5-936 


5.986 


6.042 


6.095 


6.148 


6.201 


6.254 


6-307 


6.36 


5-3 


5-4 


5-94 


5-994 


6.048 


6. 102 


6.156 


6.210 


6 26., 


6 318 


6.372 


6.426 


6.48 


5-4 


S-5 


6.05 


6.105 


6.160 


6.215 


6 270 


6.325 


6.380 


6-435 


6.490 


6-545 


6.60 


5-5 


5-6 


6.16 


6.216 


6 272 


6.328 


6.384 


6.440 


6.496 


6.552 


6.608 


6,664 


6.72 


5-6 


5-7 


6.27 


6.327 


6.384 


6.441 


6 498 


7-555 


6 612 


6.669 


6.726 


6.783 


6 84 


5-7 


5-8 


6 38 


6.438 


6 4q6 


6.554 


6.612 


6.670 


6 728 


6.786 


6.844 


6.902 


6.96 


5-8 


5-9 


6.49 


6-549 


6.608 


6.667 


6.726 


6.785 


6.844 


6.903I6.962 


7.021 


7.08 


5-9 


6.0 


6.60 


6.660 


6.720 


6.780 


6.840 


6.Q00 


6.960I7.020I7.080 


7.140 


7.20 


6.0 



CHEESE. 



309 



TABLE SHOWING xVVETlAGK PER CENT OF FAT 
IN 3IILK. (Partly after Martiny.) 





Sum of 






Sum of 


c 


Sum of 


c 








W/3 














<s. 














U tfl 


w 


« 


^ 


Onfe 


<2 


i2 


tn 


^t 


i2 


w 


M 


^^ 










tn 


en 






en 


tn 


en 




<u 


<u 


>' 


<u 


(U 


(U 


< 
3.30 


a> 


<u 


u 


< 


H 


H 


H 


< 


H 


H 


H 


H 


H 


H 


lO 


■* 


fO 


2.90 


10 


•* 


ro 


in 


t 


m 


14-50 


11.60 


8.70 


16.50 


13.20 


9.90 


18.50 


14.80 


11. 10 


3.70 


55 


64 


73 


91 


55 


24 


93 


31 


55 


84 


13 


71 


60 


68 


76 


92 


60 


28 


96 


32 


60 


88 


16 


72 


65 


72 


79 


93 


65 


32 


99 


33 


65 


92 


19 


73 


70 


76 


82 


94 


70 


36 


10.02 


34 


70 


96 


22 


74 


14-75 


11.80 


8.85 


2.95 


16.75 


13.40 


10.05 


3.35 


18.75 


15.00 


11.25 


3.75 


80 


84 


88 


96 


80 


44 


08 


36 


80 


04 


28 


76 


85 


88 


91 


97 


85 


48 


II 


37 


85 


08 


31 


77 


90 


92 


94 


98, 


90 


52 


M 


38 


90 


12 


34 


78 


95 


96 


97 


99, 


95 


56 


17 


39 


95 


16 


37 


7y 


15.00 


12.00 


9.00 


3.00 


17.00 


13.60 


10.20 


3.40 


19.00 


15.20 


11.40 


3 80 


• 05 


04 


03 


01 


05 


64 


23 


41 


05 


24 


43 


81 


10 


08 


06 


02 


10 


68 


26 


42 


10 


28 


46 


82 


15 


12 


09 


03 


IS 


72 


29 


43 


15 


32 


49 


83 


20 


16 


12 


04 


20 


76 


32 


44 


20 


36 


52 


84 


15-25 


12.20 


9-15 


3.05' 


17-25 


13.80 


10.35 


3 45 


19.25 


15.40 


11-55 


3.85 


30 


24 


18 


o6i 


30 


84 


38 


46 


30 


44 


58 


86 


35 


28 


21 


071 


35 


88 


41 


47 


35 


48 


61 


87 


40 


32 


24 


08 


40 


92 


44 


48 


40 


52 


64 


88 


45 


36 


27 


09 


45 


96 


47 


49 


45 


56 


67 


89 


15-50 


12.40 


9-30 


3.10 


17-50 


14.00 


10.50 


3.50 


19-50 


15.60 


11 .70 


3.90 


55 


44 


33 


II 


55 


04 


53 


51 


55 


64 


73 


91 


60 


48 


36 


12 


60 


08 


56 


52 


60 


68 


76 


92 


65 


5^ 


39 


13 


65 


12 


59 


53 


65 


72 


79 


93 


70 


56 


42 


14 


70 


16 


62 


54 


70 


76 


82 


94 


15-75 


12.60 


9-45 


3.15 


17-75 


14.20 


10.65 


3.55 


19-75 


15.80 


11.85 


3 95 


h 


64 


48 


16 


80 


24 


68 


56 


80 


84 


88 


96 


85 


68 


51 


17 


85 


28 


71 


57 


85 


88 


91 


97 


P 


72 


54 


18 


90 


32 


74 


58 


90 


92 


94 


98 


95 


76 


57 


19 


95 


36 


77 


59 


95 


96 


97 


99 


16.00 


12.80 


9.60 


3.20 


18 00 


14.40 


10.80 


3.60 


20.00 


16.00 


12.00 


4.00 


05 


84 


63 


21 


05 


44 


83 


61 


05 


04 


03 


01 


10 


88 


66 


22 


10 


48 


86 


62 


10 


08 


06 


02 


15 


92 


69 


23 


15 


52 


89 


63 


15 


12 


09 


03 


20 


96 


72 


''1 


20 


56 


92 


64 


20 


16 


12 


04 


16.25 


13.00 


9-75 


3.25; 


18.25 


14.60 


10.95 


3.65 


20.25 


16.20 


12.15 


4.05 


30 


04 


78 


26 


30 


64 


98 


66 


30 


24 


18 


06 


35 


08 


81 


27 


35 


68 


11.01 


67 


35 


28 


21 


07 


40 


12 


84 


28' 


40 


72 


04 


68 


40 


52 


24 


08 


45 


16 


87 


29 


« 


76 


07 


69 


45 


36 


27 


09 



310 



DAIRYING. 



TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PER CENT OF FAT 

IN MILilL.—iCoHtinued.) 



Sum of 


c 


Sum of 


c 


Sum of 




g 






u^ 






U^ 






^« 


eg 


In 00 


|£ 


U3 


tn 


sts. 

Per 

f Fa 




tn 


«j 


^^ 


' 1 


*: i 


<5 






':i^° 


H 


1 


1 


< 


in 




4.10 


10 


■"I- 




10 


"* 


CO 




20.50 


1 

16.40 12.30 


22.50 


18.00 


1 

13.50 4.50 


24.50 


19.60 


14.70 


4.90 


55 


44 33 


11 


55 


04 


53 51 


55 


64 


73 


91 


60 


48 36 


12 


60 


08 


561 52 


60 


68 


76 


92 


65 


52, 39 


13 


65 


12 


59: 53 


65 


'? 


79 


93 


70 


56 42 


14 


70 


16 


62 54 


70 


76 


82 


94 


20.75 


16.60 12.45 


4 15 


22.75 


18.20 


13 654.55 


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CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 311 



SUGGESTIONS TO PATRONS OF CHEESE FAC- 
TORIES AND CREAMERIES. (Curtis.) 

Care of 3Iilk. 

1. All milk for the cheese factory must be clean, pure, 
and wholesome, or the cheese will be bad. One hundred 
pounds of bad milk will injure 10,000 pounds of good milk. 

2. The law is very strict against watering or skimming. 
A fine of $10.00 to $100.00 is imposed if convicted. 

3. After a cow has dropped her calf, the milk should not 
be taken to the factory until the tenth milking. 

4. Milk run through an aerator as soon as drawn from 
the cow, in open air, is better for cheese and butter making 
than when set in a tub of water and dipped. By any means 
at your command thoroughly air the milk until cooled. 

5. Stagnant water, dead carcasses, or filth of any kind in 
the pasture or barn-yard produces tainted milk. For this 
reason set the can of night's milk in a clean place. 

6. Milk with clean hands ; never wet them with milk; it 
is positively filthy. 

7. See that the cow's udder is brushed clean and free 
from fine dirt and dust before milking. 

8. Never mix the night's and morning's milk. It will 
many times sour them both by pouring the warm milk into 
the cold. 

9. Small cans (10 to 15 gallons) are much preferred to 
larger ones, as the milk is kept in a better condition. 

10. Whey should be taken home in separate cans from 
that in which the milk is brought in. 

11. If whey is taken home in the milk-cans, empty at 
once, wash with tepid water, then scald and turn them out 
to the sun. 

12. Insist that the cheese-maker keep the whey-vat clean, 
by washing and scalding at least twice a week. 

13. Insist that your factory shall take in milk by the 
Babcock test, paying each patron according to what he dev 
livers. 

14. Use a Babcock test yourself and know just what you 
produce; turn off the poor cows and fill their places with 



312 DAIRYING. 

good ones. Every patron should know for himself whether 
he is boarding unprofitable cows. There is no better way 
of knowing this than by the use of the Babcock test at the 
barn. The cost of the test is but little, but its instruction 
is very valuable. 

15. It should always be remembered that pure milk can 
only be had through healthy cows, pure feed, pure water, 
pure air, and cleanly handling. Every patron is affected 
in the cash outcome by the way his brother patrons pro- 
duce and handle their milk, hence the necessity of each 
adhering to sound rules based on sound dairy sense. There 
is not a first-class factory in the land where good prices are 
obtained for cheese but what the patrons practise thorough 
cleanliness in the care of milk. Remember, it is a matter 
of profit to each to do this. 

Care of Cows. 

Pay special attention to the comfort of your cows. Do 
not let them remain out in cold rain-stormiS ; it will reduce 
the flow of milk. Feed liberally. The cow must at all 
times have all the good feed she can eat and digest. Be 
sure and provide some soiling-crop against the July and 
August drought ; if the cow shrinks then you will lose money 
in the fall, when butter and cheese are high. Oats and 
peas, sweet corn or field corn, drilled 3^ feet apart, are a 
good soiling-crop. 

A silo is a great help in the economical production of 
cow feed. Thousands of successful dairymen have proved 
this. It is no longer an experiment. 

Dairy farming at high profit calls for close study con- 
cerning the cow, concerning her feed, and how to produce 
it at the best and cheapest. Every dairy neighborhood 
will show men who make nearly double the profit from the 
business that others do. We believe that it will pay every 
man to be intelligent and as well posted as he can be on these 
important questions. We must bring up the grade of our 
reputation by making better butter and cheese. This will 
bring on a larger and better paying demand. To cheat the 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 313 

consumer with poor goods will, in the end, destroy the 
business. Better dairymen, better milk, better products, 
better reputation in the world's markets, will surely bring 
better profits, and is the only true road to Dairy Success. 

BY-LiAWS AXD RULES FOR CO-OPE HATIVE 
CREA31ERY ASSOCIATIONS. 

I. This association shall be known as the Co- 
operative Creamery Association. 

II. The purpose of the association shall be to locate, 
establish and carry on the manufacture and sale of milk 
products, in such a manner as will conduce to the greatest 
convenience and profit of the producers over the greatest 

amount of territory in the town of and vicinity. Also 

to purchase, use, and hold real and personal estate neces- 
sary for the transaction of the business of the association. 

III. The capital stock of the association shall be 

dollars, divided into shares of ten dollars each. 

IV. This association shall be co-operative. Cream and 
milk may be purchased or accepted from any person not a 
stockholder on the same terms and conditions as may be 
prescribed for stockholders. 

V. Any person directly engaged in agricultural pursuits 
may become a member of this association by taking one or 
more shares of the stock of the association. 

VI. I. The regular meetings of the association shall be 

held semi-annually, viz., on the first Mondays in and 

in each year, at such time and place as the board 

of directors may determine; and notice of such meeting 
shall be given by the clerk to each member by mail seven 
days at least previous to the date of said meeting. 2. 
Special meetings may be called either by the president, 
with the advice and consent of a majority of the directors, 
or upon written request of one third of the stockholders of 
the association, upon seven days' notice as above. 3. 
Meetings of the board of directors may be called by the 
president or by any two directors. 

VII. I. The officers of the association shall consist of a 
president, clerk, treasurer, five directors, and two auditors. 
2. The president shall be chosen annually by the board of 



314 DAIRYING. 

directors, by written ballot, at the regular meeting in 
October. 3. The clerk, treasurer, board of directors, and 
auditors shall be chosen by the stockholders annually, by 
written ballot, at the regular meeting in October, and all 
officers shall hold office till others are chosen and qualified 
in their stead. Vacancies in the above-named offices may 
be filled at any meeting of the stockholders ; in the mean- 
time by the board of directors. In case of the absence of 
the clerk a temporary clerk may be chosen and qualified 
in his stead. 

VIII. At any regularly called meeting of the association, 
nine of the members thereof, and at any meeting of the 
board of directors, three members thereof, shall constitute 
a quorum for the transaction of business. A less number 
may adjourn from time to time. 

IX. It shall be the duty of the president, who shall be a 
director, to preside at all meetings of the association and of 
the board of directors, preserve order therein, put all ques- 
tions, announce all decisions, and, in case of an equal divi- 
sion, to give the casting vote. He shall receive and safely 
preserve all bonds required of the officers of the associa- 
tion and sign all certificates or documents issued by the 
association or board of directors. In the absence of the 
president, it shall be the duty of one of the board of direc- 
tors, in order of their seniority, to preside at any meeting. 

X. It shall be the duty of the clerk to attend all meet- 
ings of the association and of the board of directors, and 
to keep a correct record of the same, which record shall be 
open for the inspection of any member. He shall give 
notice of all meetings and of all appointments on commit- 
tees, to each member thereof, and to each officer chosen, of 
his election; and shall serve all such other notices as ap- 
pertain to his office or as may be directed from time to time 
by the association or board of directors. He shall attest 
all certificates or documents issued signed by the president, 
shall file all bills and reports and such other documents as 
may be ordered to be filed, and shall carry on all such 
correspondence as may be directed : shall act as secretary 
of all committees when called upon; shall keep a correct 



CREAlklERTES AXD riTKESE FACTORIES. 315 

financial account between the association and its members, 
and shall have charge of all property not otherwise disposed 
of. He shall give such bonds for the faithful performance 
of his duty, and receive such compensation for his services, 
as the board of directors may determine. 

XI. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive all 
money belonging to the association, giving his receipt 
therefor. He shall draw all money for the payment of 
claims against the association under the direction of the 
board of directors. He shall make a report to the board of 
directors at such times as they may require. He shall per- 
form all duties required of him by the laws of the common- 
wealth and shall give such bonds for the faithful perform- 
ance of his duty as the board of directors may require. 

XII. It shall be the duty of the board of directors to 
attend to the general affairs of the association, invest the 
funds of the same, appoint such other agents and officers 
as in their judgment the interests of the association require, 
and fix all compensations. They shall keep or cause to be 
kept a correct account of all cream or milk furnished by 
the stockholders or patrons, and a correct account of all 
sales. They shall prescribe the rules and regulations 
governing the collection and delivery of the cream and 
milk; may cause the quality of the same to be tested as 
often as may be deemed expedient; may authorize the prem- 
ises of any stockholder or patron to be inspected, and 
may reject and refuse to collect or receive any cream or 
milk that is unsatisfactory or not furnished in compliance 
with the prescribed regulations. They shall establish 
prices and have full power over the business of the associa- 
tion, and shall in all cases pursue such measures as in their 
judgment will tend to the best interests of the association. 
They shall make a full report of their doings, and a full 
statement of the business at each regular meeting, or 
whenever called upon to do so by vote of the stockholders. 

XIII. The duties of the auditors shall be to audit all 
accounts of the association, making a report to the board 
of directors at the time of the regular meetings, and at such 
Qther times as they may require. 



316 DAIi;VING. 

XIV. The net profits of the business of the association, 
after such deductions have been made as the laws of the 
commonwealth require, shall be divided /re rata among the 
stockholders, according to the number of shares held by 
each. \_Note. — It is understood that the profits shall not 
exceed 6 per cent on capital, all receipts in excess of this 
sum and necessary reserves being declared in payment to 
patrons for cream or milk furnished.] 

XV. I. Any person doing business for the association or 
incurring expense therefor shall receive a just remunera- 
tion for such services or expense. 2. All documents issued 
by the association shall bear the seal thereof, said seal to 
be in charge of the clerk. 3. The directors shall procure 
a corporate seal. 4. No member of the association can 
transfer his stock to any person not directly engaged in 
agricultural pursuits. 5. In case shares are transferred by 
one person to another, the certificate thereof must be sur- 
rendered to the treasurer, and the board of directors shall 
cause another certificate to be issued to the person to whom 
the transfer is made. 

XVI. These by-laws shall not be altered or amended unless 
such alteration or amendment be proposed in writing one 
meeting previous to action being taken ; provided also that 
two thirds of the members vote in the affirmative. 

by-IjAws and rules for co-operative 
cheese factories. 

Article i. This association shall be known as the — — — 
Cheese Factory Association. 

Art. 2. There shall be two meetings held yearly at the 
factory — one in the spring and one in the fall or winter, to be 
called by the president. 

Art. 3. At the first meeting in each year there shall be 
chosen by the patrons a president and a treasurer and sales- 
man. 

Art. 4. The salesman and treasurer shall sell all the cheese, 
and as soon as he shall have sold and collected for one month's 
make of cheese, he shall, after paying the proprietor for ni^k- 



CREAM KUIES AXD CII I'.ESE FACTORIES. 317 

ing and deducting the other expenses, divide the proceeds pro 
rata, according to the amount of butter-fat delivered by each 
patron, as determined by the Babcock test. 

Art. 5. It shall also be the duty of the treasurer and sales- 
man to keep the books of the association, and make final divi- 
dend yearly to all the patrons whenever all the cheese is sold 
and paid for. He shall also keep a milk book, showing the 
number and amount of cheese made each month, to be taken 
from the factory's books. Said treasurer's milk and cheese 
books shall be subject to the inspection of the patrons and the 
president. 

Art. 6. The manager shall keep an accurate account with 
each patron of the number of pounds of milk delivered each 
day and make and record daily (every week or month) tests of 
same to show its fat content; also an account of the number and 
amount of cheese made, which accounts shall be subject to the 
inspection of the officers and patrons. 

Art. 7. The president shall be authorized to preside over 
the entire transactions of patrons or officers, and constitute a 
committee to investigate all matters pertaining to said factory, 
and if any contingency should arise, he shall be authorized to 
bring suit in law against any delinquent. 

Art. 8. The manager (cheese-maker) shall be authorized to 
criticise all milk offered, and he shall reject the same if in his 
judgment said milk is unfit to run into cheese; also to deter- 
mine the fat content of any milk, and if found to be below the 
legal standard of the State, shall report the same to the presi- 
dent, whose duty it shall be to send out a committee of three to 
the premises of said delinquent, witnessing the transit of the 
milk on the ensuing day from the cow to the factory, which 
shall again be tested as on the previous day, and if found to 
vary, the party in question shall be adjudged guilty of having 
diluted or adulterated the same, as shall appear, and shall forfeit 
and pay to the association as liquidated damages the sum of 
twenty-five dollars for each and every day such dilution shall 
occur. 

Art. 9. The president shall also have power to call special 
meetings of the patrons at any time he may deem it necessary, 
and he shall be required to call a meeting of the patrons when 



318 DAIRYIKG. 

ever a request is presented to him sig-ned by ten patrons. 
Whenever a meeting is to be called, the president shall give 
patrons at least two days' notice. 

Art. io. The action of the treasurer and salesman in regard 
to selling or holding cheese shall be governed by a vote of a 
majority of the patrons. If no vote is taken, he is to exercise 
his best judgment in the matter. 

Art. II. In voting at any annual or special meeting of this 
association the patrons shall be allowed one vote for every cow 
the milk of which is brought to the factory. [This may be 
altered to one vote on each share of the capital stock or one ^ 
vote to each shareholder.] 

Art. 12. The treasurer and salesman shall attend all meet- 
ings of the association whenever possible, and shall take min- 
utes of the proceedings, and place the same on file in his office, 
and in other respects act as secretary. In case he should be 
absent, a temporary secretary may be chosen. In case the 
president is absent at any meeting, a temporary president may 
be chosen for a presiding officer. 

RULES FOR PATRONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO 
CREAM OR MILK GATHERERS. 

These rules may be made to apply to either whole-milk or gathered- 
cream creameries. 

Feeding. — We insist upon only such food being fed to cows 
as will produce the largest and best quality of milk or cream. 
Turnips, onions, cabbage, or anything likely to injure the 
quality of milk, cream, or butter is prohibited. 

Milking. — Cows must be carefully cleaned before milking, 
to avoid odors that taint the milk. The milk must be strained 
through two strainers — one of them cloth — before going into 
the cans. Thorough cleanliness must be observed in every- 
thing. 

Creamers and Cans. — Creamers must be kept in a place free 
from odors, and cleanliness maintained in their vicinity. Tanks 
and cans must be kept sweet and clean, and the water free and 
clear. Cans must be washed, then scalded every time they are 
used. The water in the creamers should not go below 45 de- 
grees in summer and 40 degrees in winter. 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. ;U9 

Setting: Milk. — All cans must be filled full of fresh milk, so 
far as possible, and immediately placed in the tank. After cans 
are set in water they must not be disturbed. Patrons are not 
allowed to draw off the milk except on Sundays, or with per- 
mission from the trustees. 

Mixing Milk. — Cans must not be partly filled at one milking 
and after standing long enough for the cream to begin to sepa- 
rate be filled with milk from another milking, or with anything 
whatever. After a can has once been set it must not in any 
way be disturbed or meddled with, nor the milk drawn off by 
the patrons, except on Sunday. 

Night's Milk. — When niilk is delivered but once each day, 
the cans containing the night's milk must be set in cold water 
immediately after milking and the milk thoroughly stirred by 
using a dipper and pouring until the milk is thoroughly cooled. 
A better plan is to use a cooler to thoroughly cool and aerate 
the milk before it is put in the cans. The night's milk must be 
left setting in cold water until it is hauled to the creamery. 

Cream and Milk Gatherers. — Cream and milk gatherers are 
forbidden to take any cream or milk which is dirty, or for any 
reason, in their judgment, is not of satisfactory quality or con- 
dition, or which has been in any way so treated as to indicate 
that an attempt has been made to interfere with the proper and 
natural separation of the cream, or of its being correctly counted 
on the gauge, or in violation of these rules. 

Any patron found neglecting or violating any of these rules 
must at once be reported to some one of the board of trustees 
or directors, and his cream or milk must not again be taken till 
he has satisfied the trustees that his neglect was, for good rea- 
sons, excusable ; and if any patron shall more than once be so 
reported it shall be deemed a sufficient reason for refusal to 
again receive his cream at all. 

Cream or milk gatherers are especially directed to take all 
possible pains to discover all violations or neglect of any of 
these rules, and strictly enforce them in every case. 

These rules and instructions are found by experience and 
observation to be necessary for the protection of the association 
and the best good of all its members. Copies thereof will be 
securely posted conveniently near each tank where milk cans 
are set, so that ignorance can be no excuse for neglect. 



320 DAIRYING. 

Patrons are requested to notify the board of trustees or direc- 
tors if any cream or milk gatherer is in any way delinquent or 
careless in his observance of these instructions. 

Patrons who are not disposed to be governed by these rules 
are requested to so advise the trustees or directors, and the 
treasurer will make prompt settlement with any who wish to 
withdraw. 

By order of the trustees or directors. 

o , President, 

• ••• • Treas. 



PART III. GENERAL TOPICS. 



I. CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL 
ASSOCIATIONS. 

CONSTITUTION AND BY LAWS OF AGRICULTURAL 
CLUBS. 

Together With Rules of Order, and Order of Business. 

(McKekkow.) 

Constitution. 

Preamble. — We, the undersigned, interested in agricul- 
ture and horticulture, and desirous to secure the benefits to 
be derived from organization, for the purpose of practical 
discussion and the promotion of the common interests 
of our pursuits, do subscribe the following Constitution: 

Article I. Name. — This association shall be styled and 
known as the Agricultural Club. 

Article II. Objects. — The objects of this club are to ad- 
vance the knowledge and promote the general interests of 
agriculture and horticulture in this community. 

Article III. Officers. — The officers shall consist of a 
president, vice-president, recording secretary, correspond- 
ing secretary, treasurer, and librarian. 

Article IV. Duties of Officers. — Section i. It shall be 
the duty of the president to preside at all meetings of the 
club; to enforce a due observance of the Constitution, By- 
laws, and Rules of Order; to assign topics of discussion at 
the suggestion of members. He shall neither make nor 
second any motion, but shall have the privilege of taking 
part in debate; and while he has the floor the meeting for 
the time being shall be in charge of the vice-president; 
but the president shall have no vote unless the club shall 
be equally divided. 

Section 2. It shall be the duty of the vice-president to 
preside at all times when the president is absent, and while 
he shall have temporarily vacated the chair. 



322 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Section 3. The recording secretary shall keep a record 
of the proceedings of the club; also the name of each 
member, and shall on the regular last meeting of each year 
prepare and read the names of all members; and he shall 
have charge of the archives of the club. 

Section 4. The corresponding secretary shall conduct 
the correspondence of the club and act as recording secre- 
tary in the absence of that officer. He shall also render 
such assistance to the recording secretary as that officer 
may require in the performance of his duties. 

Section 5. The treasurer shall keep all money belong- 
ing to the club, and disburse the same under the direction 
of the club, according to its laws. He shall collect all fees 
and dues of members, and shall at some time during the 
month of December of each year notify such as are in 
arrears and request their dues. He shall keep a correct 
account of all moneys received and expended. 

Section 6. The librarian shall have charge of the li- 
brary and its appurtenances, regulating the use of the same 
by the members, according to the rules and regulations 
prescribed. He shall make a written report of the condi- 
tion of the library at the annual meeting, and at such 
other times as the club may direct. He shall, within one 
week, deliver to his successor in office the library and its 
appurtenances, and all books, papers, and documents in 
his possession belonging to the club. 

Article V. Elections. — All elections for officers shall be 
by ballot, and shall be held at the first regular meeting in 
January of each, year; and their terms shall commence im- 
mediately after their election, to continue for one year, or 
until others are elected to fill their places. In the case of 
vacancy occurring in any office the club shall go imme- 
diately into an election to fill the same. A majority of all 
the votes cast shall be necessary to a choice. 

Article VI. Membership. — Section i. Any person inter- 
ested in agriculture or horticulture, and of good moral 
standing, may become a member of this club by signing 
this Constitution, agreeing to support all laws and regula- 
tions made in pursuance thereof, and paying fifty cents 
annually into the treasury. 

Section 2. Honorary membership may be conferred in 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AWlUCULTUliAL ASSOCIATIONS. 323 

consideration of eminent character and services in honor 
of agriculture or horticulture and shall be conferred with- 
out fee or dues. The recipient shall not be entitled to 
hold office, but may take part in all discussions and vote 
on all questions. 

Article VII. Amendments. — No alteration, amendment, 
or addition can be made to this Constitution, neither can 
any part of it be repealed, without a vote of two thirds of 
the members present. Any proposed alteration, amend- 
ment, addition, or repeal must be submitted in writing, 
filed with the recording secretary, and read at two regu- 
lar meetings next preceding that on which the vote is taken. 

By-laws. 

Article I. This club shall assemble weekly (or twice a 

month) on evenings from November ist to April 

1st, and at such intervals thereafter as may be agreed 
upon by the club, or appointed by the president. The 
time and place of meeting may be altered at any regular 
meeting of the club by a vote of two thirds of all of the 
members present. 

Article II. Section i. Seven members shall constitute 
a quorum for the transaction of business of the club. A 
less number may meet, maintain a discussion on any topic, 
and adjourn to any given time. 

Section 2. Persons present, not members of the club, 
may be invited to take part in all discussions of agricul. 
tural topics; but they shall take no part in the business of 
the club. 

Article III. Section i. If the funds of the club should 
at any time be exhausted, or inadequate to meet the de- 
mands contemplated by the Constitution, there shall be an 
equal assessment upon each member to make up the de- 
ficiency. 

Section 2. No appropriation of money from the funds 
of the club shall be lawful, except in furtherance of the 
objects contemplated by the Constitution, as stated in ar- 
ticle 2, or as especially provided by these By-laws. 

Article IV. Section i. There shall be a library estab- 



C'34 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Hshed for the use of the club in furtherance of the objects 
contemplated in article 2 of the Constitution. 

Section 2. The library shall be open to the free use of 
the members of the club, who shall not be more than three 
months indebted to the treasury, subject to the prescribed 
rules and regulations. 

Section 3. The library shall be maintained by the sur- 
plus fund, after defraying the expenses of the club, and 
by the voluntary contributions and donations of the mem- 
bers, to be duly accredited to each contributor and donor. 

Section 4. The library shall be in charge of the li- 
brarian, as provided in article 4, section 6, of the Consti- 
tution. There shall be a standing library committee of 
three members appointed at each annual meeting, of whom 
the librarian shall be one, and ex-officio chairman, which 
shall have charge of the purchase and collection of books, 
papers, and pamphlets for the library, and perform such 
other duties as may be ordained. 

Section 5. Rules. — Rule i. No member shall have from 
the library more than one (two) book(s) at a time. 

Rule 2. No volume shall be retained longer than two 
weeks, under penalty of a fine of ten cents for the first 
week of detention, and five cents for every week thereafter. 

Rule 3. There shall be assessed for injuries as follows: 
ist. For an injury beyond ordinary wear, an amount pro- 
portionate to the injury, ascertained by the librarian. 2d. 
For the loss of the volume, the cost of the book; and if one 
of a set, an amount sufficient to replace it, or purchase a 
new volume. 

Rule 4. No person having incurred a fine shall be per- 
mitted to take books from the library until the fine is paid. 

Article V. A vote of two thirds of all the members 
present shall be required to pass any appropriation of 
money by the club, other than for its necessary contingent 
expenses. 

Article VI. Section i. Any member who shall suffer 
his account with the treasurer to go unsettled for more 
than one year shall cease to be considered as belonging to 
the club, and his name shall be stricken from the roll ac- 
cordingly. 



rON'STITUTIOXS OF A(J fllCULTURAL ASSOCIATIOKS. 325 

Section 2. Any member who shall be guilty of any gross 
violation of the rules of order, or of profane or indecent 
language or conduct, at any of the meetings of the club 
shall be fined, reprimanded, or expelled, as the club may, 
by a two thirds vote, decide. 

Section 3. Any member who shall become guilty of any 
heinous offence or disgraceful practice, such as to render 
him an unfit associate, shall, on conviction thereof, be ex- 
pelled from the club. 

Article VII. These By-laws may be amended in the 
same manner as the Constitution. 

Standing Resolutions. 

Resolved, That after this date the weekly meetings of 
this club shall be held on — — , at , or at the resi- 
dences of the members of the club, at o'clock. 

Resolved, That there shall be an Executive Committee, 
consisting of the president, recording secretary, and treas- 
urer, having power to transact the necessary business 
of the club, during the term when the meetings are not 
held. 

Rules of Order. 

1. No question shall be stated unless moved by two 
members, nor open for discussion until stated by the presi- 
dent. 

2. When a member intends to speak on a question, he 
shall rise in his place and respectfully address his remarks 
to the chair, confine his remarks to the question, and avoid 
personalities. Should more than one person rise at a 
time, the president shall determine who is entitled to the 
floor. 

3. When a member is called to order by the president, 
or any other member he shall at once take his seat, and 
every point of order shall be decided by the president, 
without debate, subject to an appeal to the club. 

4. In case of an appeal from the decision of the chair 
the question shall be put to the club thus: " Shall the de- 
cision of the chair be sustained?" which shall be decided 
without debate. 



326 GENERAL TOPICS. 

5. No member shall interrupt another while he is speak- 
ing, except to call to order. 

6. Any member may call for a division of the question, 
when the sense will admit of it. 

7. When any three members call for the yeas and nays, 
they shall be taken and recorded on the minutes. 

8. All resolutions shall, when required by the president 
or any member, be submitted in writing, and signed by the 
member offering the same. 

g. Cushing's " Manual of Parliamentary Practice " shall 
be adopted as authority in all matters pertaining to parlia- 
mentary order in the club. 

10. These Rules may be amended in the same manner 
as the Constitution and By-laws. 

Order of Business. 

1. Calling the roll of officers and necessary filling of 
vacancies. 

2. Reading of minutes of last meeting. 

3. Reports of committees. 

4. Unfinished business. 

5. New business. 

6. Reception of new members. 

7. Has any member any question to ask for information 
in regard to his farm, stock, etc.? 

8. Reading of communications and essays. 

9. Discussion of regular topic. 

10. Assignment of subject for next discussion. 

constitution of village-improvement 
■"societies. 

Article i. This society shall be called the Im- 
provement Society. 

Art. 2. The object of this society shall be to improve 
and ornament the streets and public grounds of the village 
by planting and cultivating trees, establishing and protect- 
ing grass-plats and borders in the avenues, and generally 
doing whatever may tend to the improvement of the village 
as a place of residence. 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 327 

Art. 3. The business of the society shall be conducted 
by a board of nine directors, five gentlemen and four 
ladies, to be elected annually by the society, who shall 
constitute the board. This board shall, from its own 
number, elect one president, two vice-presidents, a secre- 
tary, and treasurer, and shall appoint such committees as 
they may deem advisable to further the ends of the society. 

Art. 4. It shall be the duty of the president, and, in his 
absence, of the senior vice-president, to preside at all meet- 
ings of the society, and to carry out all orders of the board 
of directors. 

Art. 5. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a 
correct and careful record of all proceedings of the society 
and of the board of directors in a book suitable for their 
preservation, and such other duties as ordinarily pertain 
to the office. 

Art. 6. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to keep the 
funds of the society, and to make such disbursements as 
may be ordered by the board of directors. 

Art. 7. No debt shall be contracted by the board of 
directors beyond the amount of available funds within 
their control to pay it, and no member of this society shall 
be liable for any debt of the society beyond the amount of 
his or her subscription. 

Art. 8. Any adult person may become a member of this 
society by paying two dollars ($2.00) annually. Any per- 
son not of age who shall plant and protect a tree, under 
the direction of the board of directors, or shall pay the 
sum of $1.00 annually, may become a member of this 
society until of age, after which time the annual dues 
shall be increased to two dollars ($2. 00), the same as other 
adults. 

Art. 9. The annual meeting of the society shall be held 
during the first week in October at such place as the board 
of directors may select, and a notice of such meeting shall 
be posted in prominent places through the village. Other 
meetings of the society may be called by the board of 
directors when desirable. 

Art. 10. At the annual meeting the board of directors 



328 GEifEIlAL TOPICS. 

shall report the amount of money received during the year 
and the source from which it has been received; the amount 
of money expended during the year, and the objects for 
which it has been expended; the number of trees planted 
at the cost of the society, and the number planted by indi- 
viduals; and, generally, all acts of the board that may be 
of interest to the society. This report shall be entered 
on the record of the society. 

Art. II. This constitution may be amended with the 
approval of two thirds of the members present at any 
annual meeting of the society, or at any special meeting 
called for that purpose, a month's notice of the proposed 
amendment, with its object, having been given. 

CONSTITUTION OF ROAD LEAGUES. 

Article i. This organization shall be known as the 
Road League of County, (State). 



Art. 2. Its object shall be the improvement of public 
roads in and vicinity. 

Art. 3. Any person may become a member on payment 
of one dollar per annum, and shall be entitled to vote at 
annual meetings. 

Art. 4. The annual meeting shall be held in November 
on Mondays on or preceding the full moon. 

Art. 5. The business of the Road League shall be 
intrusted to a council of twelve, who shall be chosen by 
ballot at the annual meetings, and they shall hold office 
until their successors are elected. 

By-laws. 

Art. I. The council of twelve shall convene as soon as 
possible after the election, and shall choose from their 
number a president, also a secretary and treasurer (who 
may be one and the same person), and the council shall 
hold meetings monthly at the call of the secretary. 

Art. 2. The president shall preside at all meetings, and 
when absent a member present shall be called to the chair 
in the usual way. 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTUllAL ASSOCIATIOKS. 329 

Art. 3. The secretary shall keep a record of the proceed- 
ings of all meetings and conduct the correspondence of the 
league. 

Art. 4. The treasurer shall keep an accurate account of 
receipts and disbursements in a book for that purpose, and 
all disbursements shall be authorized or approved by the 
council. 

Art. 5. Meetings of the council may be called by order 
of the president, or at the request of three of its members, 
and five shall constitute a quorum. 

Art. 6. The president shall appoint a monthly committee 
of two members of the council, who shall give special 
supervision to the work of the overseer in charge of the 
roads under the jurisdiction of the league, and serve until 
their successors are appointed. 

Art. 7. The council shall fill all vacancies occurring by 
resignation or otherwise, and they may drop from their 
number any member who shall persistently neglect his 
duty, or manifest indifference by non-attendance of the 
monthly meetings. 

Art. 8. The constitution and by-laws of this league may 
be changed by a two thirds vote of the entire council, 
notice of such change having been given in writing at a 
preceding meeting. 

The order of business of the council shall be as follows. 
I. RoU-call. 2. Reading of minutes of previous meeting. 
3. Report of treasurer. 4. Unfinished business. 5. Nev/ 
business. 6. Reports of committees and of the overseers. 
7. Adjournment. 



330 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



II. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND 
TABLES. 

EXPLANATION OF THE FLAG SIGNALS ADOPTED 
BY THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU. 



The U. S. Weather Bureau furnishes, when practicable, 
for the benefit of the general public and those interests de- 
pendent to a greater or less extent upon weather condi- 
tions, the "Forecasts" which are prepared daily, at 
lo A.M. and ID P.M., for the following day. These weather 
forecasts are telegraphed to observers at stations of the 
Weather Bureau, railway officials, and many others, 
and are so worded as to be readily communicated to the 
public by means of flags or steam whistles. The flags 
adopted for this purpose are five in number, and of the 
form and dimensions indicated below: 



No. I . 
White Flag. 



No. 3. 

White and Blue 

Flag. 




No 4. No. 5. 

Black Tri- White Flag 
angular with black 
Flag. square in centre. 



Clear or fair Rain or snow. Local rains 
weather. 



or snow 



^ 



Temperature 

signal. 



Cold wave. 



No. I, white flag, 6 feet square, indicates clear or fair 
weather. No. 2, blue flag, 6 feet square, indicates rain or 
snow. No. 3, white and blue flag (parallel bars of white 
and blue), 6 feet square, indicates that local rains or show- 
ers will occur, and that the rainfall will not be general. 
No. 4, black triangular flag, 4 feet at the base and 6 feet in 
length, always refers to temperature; when placed above 
Nos. I, 2, or 3, it indicates warmer weather; when placed 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 331 

below Nos. I, 2, or 3, it indicates colder weather; when not 
displayed, the indications are that the temperature will re- 
main stationary, or that the change in temperature will 
not vary more than 4° from the temperature of the same 
hour of the preceding day from March to October, inclu- 
sive, and not more than 6° for the remaining months of the 
year. No. 5, white flag, 6 feet square, with black square 
in centre, indicates the approach of a sudden and decided 
fall in temperature. This signal is not to be displayed un- 
less it is expected that the temperature will fall to 42" or 
lower, and is usually ordered at least twenty-four hours in 
advance of the cold wave. 

Interpretation of Displays. 

No. I, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary tempera- 
ture. 

No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary tempera- 
ture. 

No. 3, alone, indicates local rain or snow, stationary 
temperature. 

No. I, with No. 4 above it, indicates fair weather, 
warmer. 

No. I, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, colder. 

No. 2, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather, 
rain or snow. 

No. 2, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather, rain 
or snow. 

No. 3, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather, 
with local rains or snow. 

No. 3, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather, 
with local rains or snow. 

No. 1, with No, 5 above it, indicates fair weather, cold 
wave. 

No. 2, with No. 5 above it, indicates wet weather, cold 
wave. 



332 general topics. 

IjIst of headquarters of state weather 
services. 

The headquarters of the state weather services are as 
follows: 

Auburn, Alabama. Crete, Nebraska. 

Little Rock, Arkansas. Carson City, Nevada. 

Sacramento, California. New Brunswick, New Jersey. 

Denver, Colorado. Santa Fe, New Mexico. 

Atlanta, Georgia. Ithaca, New York. 

Springfield, Illinois. Raleigh, North Carolina. 

Indianapolis or Lafayette, Bismarck, North Dakota. 

Indiana. Columbus, Ohio. 

Des Moines, Iowa. Portland or Oswego, Oregon. 

Topeka, Kansas. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

Louisville, Kentucky. Columbia, South Carolina. 

New Orleans, Louisiana. Huron, South Dakota. 

Baltimore, Maryland. Nashville, Tennessee. 

Cambridge, Massachusetts. Galveston, Texas. 

Lansing, Michigan. Lynchburg, Virginia. 

Minneapolis, Minnesota. Olympia, Washington. 

University, Mississippi. Parkersburg, West Virginia. 

Columbia, Missouri. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 

BENEFICIALi AND HARMFUL. HAWKS AND OWIjS. 

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

Much misapprehension exists among farmers as to the 
habits of birds of prey. Examination of the contents of 
the stomachs of such birds to the number of several 
thousand has established the fact that their food consists 
almost entirely of injurious mammals and insects, and that 
accordingly these birds are in most cases positively beneficial 
to the farmer, and should be fostered ana protected. 

Among those tvholly beneficial are the large, rough-legged 
hawk; its near relative, the squirrel-hawk, or ferruginous 
roughleg; and the four kites: the white-tailed kite, Missis- 
sippi kite, swallow-tailed kite, and everglade kite. 

The class that is beneficial in the main — that is, whose 
depredations are of little consequence in comparison with 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND 1"ABLES. 333 

the good it does — includes a majority of the hawks and 
owls, among them being the following species and their 
races: March hawk, Harris's hawk, red-tailed hawk, red- 
shouldered hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed hawk, 
Swainson's hawk, short-winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, 
Mexican black hawk, Mexican goshawk, sparrow-hawk, 
Audubon's caracara, barn-owl, long-eared owl, short-eared 
owl, great gray owl, barred owl, Western owl, Richardson's 
owl, Acadian owl, screech-owl, flammulated screech owl, 
snowy owl, hawk-owl, burrowing owl, pygmy owl, fer- 
ruginous pygmy owl, and elf-owl. 

The class in which the harmful and the beneficial qualities 
about balance each other includes the golden eagle, bald 
eagle, pigeon-hawk, Richardson's hawk, Aplomado falcon, 
prairie falcon, and the great horned owl. 

The harmful class comprises the gyrfalcons, duck-hawk, 
sharp-shinned hawk. Cooper's hawk, and goshawk. 

HOW PATENTS ARE ISSUED. 

Patents are issued in the name of the United States, and 
under the seal of the Patent Office, to any person who has 
invented or discovered any new and useful art, machine, 
manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new or use- 
ful improvement thereof, not known or used by others in 
this country, and not patented or described in any printed 
publication in this or any foreign country before the inven- 
tion or discovery thereof, and not in public use or on sale 
for more than two years prior to his application, unless the 
same is proved to have been abandoned ; and any person 
who by his own industry, genius, efforts, and expense has 
invented and produced any new and original design for a 
manufacture, bust, statua, alto-relievo or bas-relief, or any 
new and original design for the printing of woolen, silk, 
cotton, or other fabrics, any new and original impression, 
ornament, patent, pattern, print, or picture to be painted^ 
printed, cast, or otherwise placed on or worked into any 



334 GENERAL TOPICS. 

article of manufacture ; or any new, useful, and original 
shape or configuration of any article of manufacture, the 
same not having been known or used by others before his 
invention or production thereof, or patented or described in 
any printed publication, may, upon payment of the fee pre- 
scribed and other due proceedings had, obtain a patent on 
the same. 

Every patent contains a short title or description of the 
invention or discovery, correctly indicating its nature and 
design, and a grant to the patentee, his heirs or assigns, for 
the term of seventeen years of the exclusive right to make, 
use, and vend the invention or discovery throughout the 
United States and the Territories, referring to the specifica- 
tion for the particulars thereof. 

If it appears that the inventor, at the time of making his 
application, believed himself to be the original and first in- 
ventor or discoverer, a patent will not be refused on account 
of the invention or discovery or any part thereof having 
been known or used in a foreign country before his inven- 
vention or discovery thereof, if it had not been patented or 
described in a printed publication. 

No person shall be debarred from receiving a patent for 
his invention by reason of its having been first patented in 
a foreign country, unless the application for the foreign 
patent was filed more than seven months prior to the filing 
of the application in this country. But every patent granted 
for an invention which has been previously patented in a 
foreign country shall be so limited as to expire at the same 
time with the foreign patent, or if there be more than one, 
at the same time with the one having the shortest term, but 
in no case shall it be in force more than seventeen years. 

Joint inventors are entitled to a joint patent; neither can 
claim one separately. Independent inventors of distinct 
and independent improvements in the same machine can- 
not obtain a joint patent for their separate inventions; nor 
does the fact that one furnishes the capital and another 
makes the invention entitle them to make application as 
joint inventors ; but in such cases they may become joint 
patentees. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUJJJECTS AND TABLES. 335 

Applications. — Application for a patent must be made in 
writing to the Commissioner of Patents. The applicant 
must also file in the Patent Office a written description of 
the same, and of the manner and process of making, con- 
structing, compounding and using it, in such full, clear, con- 
cise, and exact terms as to enable any person skilled in the 
art or science to which it appertains, or with which it is 
most nearly connected, to make, construct, compound, and 
use the same; and in case of a machine, he shall explain the 
principle thereof, and the best mode in which he has con- 
templated applying that principle, so as to distinguish it 
from other inventions; and particularly point out and dis- 
tinctly claim the part, improvement, or combination which 
he claims as his invention or discovery. The specification 
and claim shall be signed by the inventor and attested by 
two witnesses. 

When the nature of the case admits of drawings, the ap- 
plicant must furnish a drawing of the required size, signed 
by the inventor or his attorney in fact, and attested by two 
witnesses, which shall be filed in the Patent Office. In 
cases of inventions that admit of representation by model, 
the applicant, if required by the Patent Office, shall furnish 
a model of convenient size to exhibit advantageously the 
several parts of the invention or discovery. 

The applicant shall make oath that he does verily believe 
himself to be the original and first inventor and discoverer 
of the art, machine, manufacture, composition, or improve- 
ment for which he solicits a patent; that he does not know 
and does not believe that the same was ever before known 
or used, and shall state of what country he is a citizen and 
where he resides. Such oath may be made before any per- 
son within the United States authorized by law to admin- 
ister oaths, or, when the applicant resides in a foreign 
country, before any minister, charge d'affaires, consul, or 
commercial agent holding commission under the Govern- 
ment of the United States, or before any notary public of 
the foreign country in which the applicant may be, provided 
such notary is authorized by the laws of his country to 
administer oaths. 



336 GENERAL TOPICS. 

On the filing of such application and the payment of the 
fees required by law, the Commissioner of Patents shall 
cause an examination to be made, and if, on such examina- 
tion, it appears that the claimant is justly entitled to a 
patent under the law, and that the same is sufficiently use- 
ful and important, the Commissioner shall issue a patent 
therefor. 

Assignynents. — Every patent or any interest therein shall 
be assignable in law by an instrument in writing, and the 
patentee or his assigns or legal representatives may in like 
manner grant and convey an exclusive right under his 
patent to the whole or any specified part of the United 
States. 

Caveats. — A caveat, under the patent law, is a notice 
given to the office of the caveator's claim as inventor, in 
order to prevent the grant of a patent to another for the 
same alleged invention upon an application filed during 
the life of the caveat without notice to the caveator. 

Any citizen of the United States who has made a new 
invention or discovery, and desires more time to mature 
the same, may, on payment of a fee of ten dollars, file in 
the Patent Office a caveat setting forth the object and the 
distinguishing characteristics of the invention, and praying 
protection of his right until he shall have matured his 
invention. Such caveats shall be filed in the confidential 
archives of the office and preserved in secrecy, and shall be 
operative for the term of one year from the filing thereof. 

An alien shall have the privilege herein granted if he 
has resided in the United States one year next preceding 
the filing of his caveat, and has made oath of his intention 
to become a citizen. 

Fees. — The following are the rates for patent fees, and 
these are payable in advance: 

On filing each original application for a patent (except in 
design cases), $15. 

On issuing each original patent (except in design cases), 
$20. 

In design cases: For three years and six months, $10; 
for seven years, $15; for fourteen years, $30. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 337 

On filing each caveat, $io. 

On every application for the reissue of a patent, $30. 

On filing each disclaimer, $10. 

On every application for the extension of a patent, $50. 

On the granting of every extension of a patent, $50. 

For certified copies of patents and other papers in manu- 
script, 10 cents per hundred words. 

For recording every assignment, agreement, power of 
attorney, or other paper of three hundred words or under, 
$1; of over three hundred words and under one thousand 
words, $2; of over one thousand words, $3. For copies of 
drawings, the reasonable cost of making them. 

LEGAL HOL.IDAYS.1 

January i. New Year's: All States except Massachusetts, 
Minnesota, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. 

January 8, Anniversary of Battle of New Orleans : Loui- 
siana. 

January 19, Lee's Birthday : Florida, Georgia, North Car- 
olina, and Virginia. 

February 12, Lincoln's Birthday : Illinois, Minnesota, New 
Jersey, New York, and Washington. 

February 22, Washington's Birthday : All States except 
Iowa, Mississippi, and New Mexico. 

March 2, 7'exan Independence Anniversary : Texas. 

April, first Saturday, Arbor Day : Utah. 

April, first Wednesday, Election Day : Rhode Island. 

April 19, Concord Day : Massachusetts. 

April 21, Anniversary of Battle of San Jacinto : Texas. 

April 22, Arbor Day : Nebraska. 

April 26, Memorial Day : Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and 
Tennessee. 

May, first Friday, Arbor Day : Rhode Island and Idaho, 

May 10, Mernorial Day : North Carolina. 

May 20, Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence : North 
Carolina. 

May 30, Memorial Day : All States except Alabama, 
Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Nevy 



338 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Mexico, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, and Vir- 
ginia. 

June '^, Jefferson Davis's Birthday : Florida. 

July 4, Independence Day : All States and District of Co- 
lumbia. 

July 24, Pioneers' Day : Utah. 

August 16, Bennington Battle Day : Vermont. 

September, first Monday, Labor Day : All States and Dis- 
trict of Columbia. 

September 9, Admission Day : California. 

October 15, Lincoln Day : Connecticut. 

October 31, Admission ijtto the Union Anniversary : Ne- 
vada. 

November, General Election Day (first Tuesday after first 
Monday) : Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, 
Indiana, Illinois, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, 
Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North 
Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South 
Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, 
West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. 

November, last Thursday, Thanksgiving Day: In all 
States, though not a stationary holiday in some. 

December 25. Christmas Day : All States and District of 
Columbia. 

Arbor Day is a legal holiday in Idaho, Kansas, Rhode 
Island, and Wyoming, the day being set by the governor. 

Mardi Gras (the last day before Lent) is observed as & 
holiday in Alabama and Louisiana. 

Good Friday is observed as a holiday in Alabama, Georgia, 
Louisiana, Maryland, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Ten- 
nessee. 

Every Saturday after 12 o'clock noon is a legal holiday in 
New York, New Jersey, and New Orleans ; also from June 
to September in Colorado and Pennsylvania. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 339 

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS. 

By J, NoER, M.D., Stoughton, Wis. 

Wounds. — The all-important item in the treatment of 
wounds or cuts is absolute cleanliness or asepsis. Asepsis 
can be secured by having everything that is to be used for 
the wound boiled just before applying it. 

Before dressing a wound: 

1st. Wash your hands, scrub and clean finger-nails 
thoroughly with soap and hot boiled water. 

2d. Wash the limb or parts around cut or wound with 
boiled water and soap. 

3d. Wash out the wound with hot boiled water. If there 
is still oozing from the cut surfaces, press clean cloths 
wrung out of boiled water as hot as hands can bear against 
the bleeding surfaces till it stops. 

4th. Draw the edges of the wound together with strips 
of court-plaster. 

5th. Lay over the wound so as to cover it well ten to 
twelve thicknesses of clean boiled and baked dry cheese- 
cloth, sheeting, or linen, and fasten on with a bandage. 

6th. Let the injured parts be at rest. If you nav.; 
secured asepsis and gotten the edges of the wound together 
closely, keep the wounded parts at rest for from three to bix 
days; the wound will then heal without pain or pus, and 
without swelling, inflammation, or fever. Don't hinder 
the healing of a wound by putting pitch, tobacco juice, 
" healing ointments," liniments, or other filth into it. 

Broken or Mangled Limbs should be supported by 
temporary splints, made from boards, pasteboard, shingles, 
etc. Put one on each side of the limb and tie on with 
handkerchief or bandages. The splints should be long 
enough to support entire limb. 

Burns and Scalds — If the burn is extensive, place the 
person in a bath of lukewarm water, keep the body im- 
mersed up to the chin, see that the water is kept warm; 
patient may be left in bath indefinitely. If the burn is not 
large, but painful, cover the burned surface with a thick 
layer of flour, powdered starch, zinc ointment, or cotton 



340 gekeraL topics. 

batting. Equal parts of limewater and linseed oil may be 
applied, and the burn covered with cotton. It is impor- 
tant in burns to apply a dressing that will exclude the air. 
In large burns there is always, severe shock: treat this 
as directed below. 

Shock, — When a person has been severely injured or 
badly frightened, there follows a condition of the system 
which is known as shock. A person suffering from shock 
generally becomes pale, cold, faint, and trembling with a 
small weak pulse. The mind is dull and the person looks 
anxious and distressed. Sometimes the person is excited 
and restless. 

Treatment. — Let the person rest in a quiet cheerful 
place. If he is little injured, tell him so calmly. If the 
injury is severe, and there is pain, broken bones, bleeding, 
etc., you must still be calm, cheerful, and helpful. Give a 
tablespoonful (2 or 3, if a drinker) of whiskey in water every 
quarter or half hour. Wrap him in warm blankets and 
lay hot water bottles around him. If there is much pain, 
give 10 drops of laudanum. In case of bleeding, open 
wounds, or broken bones, treat them as directed. A flushed 
face and fever show that the patient is reviving and does 
not need hot-water bottles or whiskey. Never let an in- 
jured person be surrounded by a crowd of people. 

Hemorrhage or Bleeding always occurs after an in- 
jury. It is the result of the tearing or cutting off of the 
blood-vessels. A person suffering from hemorrhage either 
internal or external is pale, faint, with feeble pulse. 

Treatment. — Keep the person quiet. If the bleeding 
comes from a wound in the upper or lower limbs, it will 
Stop by raising the limb up above the rest of the body. 
Tie clean cloths tightly over the sore. If the blood comes 
in spurts, tie a rope or handkerchief tightly around limb 
above cut nearest to body. If bleeding is slight, it will 
stop by tying clean cloths tightly over the cut. Ice may 
be applied over the bleeding vessels. Clean cloths wrung 
out of water as hot as hands can bear is often effective. 

Never use cobwebs, tobacco juice, or other filthy things 
to stop bleeding. If a person spits or coughs up red frothy 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 341 

blood, he is probably bleeding from the lungs. Let him 
lie down, and if it continues to come up apply ice to chest 
and give a teaspoonful of extract of ergot. 

Sunstroke and Heat Exhaustion. — In sunstroke the 
person has a red face; skin is hot and dry; there is high 
fever; breathing and pulse are very rapid. There is often 
delirium and convulsions. Put the patient in a cold bath; 
apply ice to the head and rub the skin with pieces of ice. 
If he cannot be put into a bath, put him in the shade and 
pour cold water over him, or wrap him in cold wet blank- 
ets and pour cold water over his head. In heat exhaus- 
tion the patient is pale and the skin cool. There is no 
fever. Let the person rest in the shade. Give stimulants, 
as hot coffee or whiskey. 

Poisoning. — In any case of poisoning when the kind of 
poison is unknown, induce vomiting at once by giving 
warm water with or without a tablespoonful of ground 
mustard, or double this amount of salt to the teacup. 
Thrust your finger down his throat to help the emetic. 
Milk, raw eggs, gruel, oil should be given freely if irritant 
poisons, like potash, lye, or acids, have been taken. The 
following table contains suggestions for the proper treat- 
ment of the forms of poisoning occurring most frequently: 



n42 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



Poison. 



Acids: 
Sulfuric, 
Niiric, 
Muriatic, 
Oxalic. 

Carbolic acid and 
Creosote. 

Alkalies: 
Ammonia, 
Soda, 
Potash, 
Lye. 

Arsenic, 
Paris Green, 
Poison fly-paper, 
Rough on rats. 



Treatment. 



Corrosive 
mate. 



subli- 



lodin. 

Opium. 
Morphin, 
Laudanum, 
Paregoric. 

Poison gas from 
coal stove. 



Give soap, soda, whitewash, or magnesia, mixed in 

water. Produce vomiting. 
Give gruel, milk, eggs (uncooked). 
Relieve pain by giving lo drops of laudanum in 

water. 

Give Epsom salts, raw eggs, 
l^roduce vomiting. 

Give vinegar, lemon or orange juice, or any acid 

diluted in plenty ot water. 
Give milk, gruel, white of egg, oils. 
For paui give lo drops of laudanum. 

Produce vomiting if there is none already. 
Hydrated oxid of iron with magnesia in water h 

the antidote. 
Give 2 tablespoonsful of castor oil. 

Produce vomiting. Give a teaspoonful of tannin in 

water. 
Give raw eggs, milk, castor oil. 

Produce vomiting. 

Give starch and water, raw eggs, milk, or gruel. 

Produce vomiting. Inject from a pint to a quart of 
strong cofiEee into rectum, or give by mouth if 
patient can swallow. 

Keep patient awake. 



Fresh air ; stimulants, as coflEee, ammonia. 



~j.\. ^,:;x_ju: 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 343 

The following additional suggestions are offered: 

Lightning. — Dash cold water over person struck. 

Mad-dog- or Snake-bite. — Tie cord tight above wound. 
Suck the wound and cauterize with caustic or white-hot 
iron at once, or cut out adjoining parts with a sharp knife. 
Give stimulants, as whisky, brandy, etc. 

Sting of Venomous Insects, etc. — Apply weak am- 
monia, oil, salt water, or iodin. 

Fainting. — Place fiat on back, allow fresh air, and 
sprinkle with water. Place head lower than rest of body. 

Cinders in the Eye. — Roll soft paper up like a lamp- 
lighter and wet the tip to remove cinder, or use a medicine- 
dropper to draw it out. Rub the other eye. 

Fire in One's Clothing. — Don't run, especially not 
down-stairs or out-of-doors. Roll on carpet, or wrap in 
woolen rug or blanket. Keep the head down so as not to 
inhale flame. 

Fire in a Building. — Crawl on the floor. The clearest 
air is the lowest in the room. Cover head with woolen 
wrap, wet if possible. 

Fire from Kerosene. — Don't use water, it will spread 
the flames. Dirt, sand, or flour is the best extinguisher; 
or smother with woolen rug, table-cloth or carpet. 

Suffocation from Inhaling Illuminating-gas. — Get into 
fresh air as soon as possible, and lie down. Keep warm. 
Take ammonia, 20 drops to a tumbler of water, at frequent 
intervals ; also 2-4 drops tincture of nux vomica every 
hour or two for 5 or 6 hourSo {^W or Id Almanac, 1899.) 



344 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



INTEREST TABLES. 



4% 


$1 


|3 


h 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$rooo 


4 DAY. 


o 


O 


o 


o 


o 


o 














5 


45 


8 " 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 








1 


I 


9 


8g 


12 " 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


I 


1 


I 


1 


2 


13 


1-34 


i6 " 


o 


o 


o 


o 


I 


I 


1 


2 


2 


2 


18 


1.78 


so " 


o 


o 


o 




I 


2 


2 


2 


« 


2 


22 


2.22 


24 " 


o 


o 


I 




2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


27 


2.67 


28 " 


o 


o 


I 




2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


31 


311 


I MO. . 


o 


o 


I 




2 


2 


3 




3 


3 


V, 


3-34 


2 " 


o 


2 


2 




4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


67 


6.67 


3 '' 


I 


2 


3 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1. 00 


10.00 


6 " 


2 


4 


6 


8 


lO 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


2.00 


20.00 


•l YR... 


4 


8 


12 


i6 


20 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


4.00 


40.00 



5% 


$1 



$2 


$3 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$1000 


4 DAY. 





























56 


8 " 




















I 


1 


I 


I 


II 


i.ii 


12 " 














I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


17 


1.67 


16 " 











I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


22 


2.22 


20 " 








1 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 




3 


27 


2.74 


24 !! 








1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 




3 


33 


3-34 


28 " 





1 


I 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 




4 


3a 


3a4 


I MO. . 





1 


2 


2 


2 


S 


3 


4 




4 


42 


4.17 


2 " 


I 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


7 




9 


83 


B..34 


3 " 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


9 


10 


ir 


13 


1.25 


12.50 


6 " 


3 


5 


8 


TO 


13 


15 


18 


20 


23 


25 


2.50 


25.00 


I YR .. 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


5.00 


50.00 



e% 


$1 



$2 



$3 



$4 



$5 



$6 


$7 


,s 


$9 


|io 


$100 


$1000 


4 DAY. 








I 


I 


1 


7 


67 


8 " 











I 


I 


I 


1 


I 


I 


I 


13 


1-33 


12 '* 








I 


1 


I 


1 


I 


2 


2 


2 


20 


2.00 


16 " 





1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


27 


2.67 


20 " 


I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


33 


3-33 


24 " 


I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


40 


4.00 


I MO.. 


1 


I 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


50 


5-00 


2 *' 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1.00 


10.00 


3 *I 


2 


3 


5 


6 


8 


9 


II 


12 


14 


15 


1.50 


15.00 


6 " 


3 


6 


9 


12 


15 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


3.00 


30.00 


I YR... 


^ 


12 


18 


24 


30 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


6.00 


60.00 



'7% 


$1 


$2 


$3 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$1000 


4 DAY. 
































8 


77 


8 " 




















I 




I 


1 


15 


1-55 


12 " 














I 


I 


I 




2 


2 


23 


2.31 


16 " 











I 


I 


I 


2 




2 


3 


31 


310 


20 " 








I 


I 


I 


2 


2 




3 


4 


38 


3.a4 


24 " 








I 


I 


2 


2 


3 




4 


5 


. 4b 


4.b2 


I MO. . 





1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 




5 


6 


5» 


S.«3 


2 " 


I 


2 


3 


5 


6 


7 


8 




10 


12 


1. 17 


11.67 


3 " 


2 


3 


5 


7 


9 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


1-75 


17-50 


6 " 


4 


7 


11 


14 


18 


21 


25 


28 


32 


35 


3- 50 


35 00 


I YR... 


7 


14 


21 


28 


35 


42 


49 


5b 


b3 


70 


7.00 


70.00 



MlSCELLAN-EOtS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 345 



TABLE OF WAGES BY THE WEEK. 

(Computed on a basis of ten hours' labor per day.) 



M 
U 


I 


2 


5 


8 


9 


I 


= 


3 


4 5 


6 




Hr. 


Hrs. 


Hrs. 


Hrs. 


Hrs. 


Day. 


Days. 

1.00 


Days. 


Days. Days. 

1 


Days. 


$3 


•OS 


.10 


•25 


.40 


•45 


•50 


1.50 


2.00 ' 2.50 


3.00 


4 


.06^- 


•13^ 


•33iT 


.53A 


.60 


.66^ 


1-333 


2.00 


2 66§ 3.33^ 


4.00 


5 


.08^ 


.i6§ 


•4ii' 


.66S 


•75 


.«3^ 


1. 6611 


2.50 


3 -.333 4.i6§ 


5.00 


b 


.10 


.20 


•50 


.8a 


.90 


1. 00 


2.00 


3.00 


4.00 1 5.00 


6.00 


7 


."f 


•23^ 


-.58^ 


•93A 


1.05 


1.16^ 


2.333 
2 . 66§ 


3 •so 


4.66§ 5 -83 J 


7.00 


8 


■13^ 


.2b^ 


.66s 


i.oti 


1.20 


1-33^ 


4.00 


5-33^ 6.66i 


8.00 


9 


•15 


.30, 


.75 


1.20 


1-35 


1.50 


3-00 


4^50 


6.00 7.50 


9.00 


10 


..6§ 


•333 


•«3-^ 


I •333 


1^50 


i.66§ 


3.333 


=;.oo 


6 66§ 8.3^^ 


10.00 


II 


.i8i 


•3b* 


•9ii 


i^46i- 


1. 65 


1-83^ 


3^66g 


5^50 


7-33^ 9^i6§ 


11.00 


t2 


.20 


.40 


1. 00 


1.60 


1.80 


2.00 


4.00 


6.00 


8.00 i 10.00 


12.00 


13 


.2I§ 


•43^ 


1.08^ 


^•7"^3 


1-95 


2.,6ff 


4.33^ 


6.50 


8.665 10.83^ 


13.00 


14 


•23s 


.4ti 


i.i6§ 


i.86§ 


2.10 


2^.33i 


4.66S 


7.00 


9^33§ii.66§ 


14.00 


15 


•2S 


•50 


1.25 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


5 00 


7 •so 


10.00 12.50 


15.00 


lb 


.26^ 


•53-3- 


I -333 


2^I3S 


2.40 


2.66g 




8.00 


10 66| 13.33A 


16.00 


'2 


.28^ 


•56§ 


1.41-I 


2. 265 


2-55 


2.83^ 


5.66I 


8.50 


"•333 i4^i62 


17.00 


lU 


•SO 


.60 


1^50 


2.40 , 


2.70 


3.00 


6.00 


9.00 


12.00 15.00 


i8.oo 


19 


•31^ 


•63A 


^.5H 


2 533 


2 •85 


3^i6« 


6.33-^ 


9-50 


12.66^ i5.8:(-3i 


19.00 


20 


•33^ 


.601 


i.bbg 


2.661 


300 


3 -.3.3^ 


6.66| 


10.00 


13.33! 16.66S 


20.00 


24 


.40 


.80 


2.00 


3^20, 


3^00 


4.00 


8.00 


12.00 


16.00 20.00 

1 


24.00 



TABLE OF WAGES BY THE DAY. 

(Computed on a basis of ten hours'* labor per day.) 





25c. 


37^c. 


50c. 


62iC. 


75c. 


87*c. 


$1.00 


$1.12* 


$t.2S 


i hour.. 


.01} 


• oil 


.02* 


•03^ 


.03^ 


.o4i 


•05 


•05I 


.o6i 


I " 


.02=^ 


•03f 


•05 


.o6i 


.07* 


.o8f 


.•10 


.Hi 


.12* 


2 " 


•05 


•07^ 


.10 


• 12* 


.15 


•17^ 


.20 


.22* 


•25 


5 " 


.I2i 


.i8f 


•25 


•3ii 


•37^ 


•43f 


•50 


.56^ 


. -6^^ 


8 '• 


.20 


•30 


.40 


•50 


.60 


•70 


.80 


.90 


$1.00 


9 " 


.22f 


.33* 


.45 


.56i 


.67* 


.781 


.90 


I.Oli 


T.12* 


I day... 


.25 


.37^ 


^ -5° 


.b2i 


... -75 


. -^7^ 


ijir.oo 


I. 12* 


1.25 


2 days.. 


.50 


^ -75 


fi.oo 


$1.2^ 


fr.50 


$1^75 


2 00 


2.25 


2.50 


3 " 


5tii.oo 


$I.I2j 


1.50 


1.87* 


2.25 


2.62* 


3.00 


3^37^ 


3^75 


4 ,^ 


1.50 


2.00 


2.50 


3.00 


3-50 


4.00 


4 50 


5.0a 


1 


1^25 


^•87J 


2.50 


3 12* 


3.75 


4^37^ 


5.00 


5.62* 


6.25 


6 " 


1.50 


2.25 


3.00 


3-75 


4^50 


5-25 


6.00 


6^75 


7-50 





$i.37i 


$1.50 


$1.62* 


$1.75 


$1.87* 


$2.00 


$2.12* 


$2.25 


$2.37* 


* hour.. 

1 " 

2 " 


.o6| 

•T3f 

.^7* 


.07J 
• 15 
•30 

^ -75 


.08J 
.16} 

•32] 

.8I: 


.o8f 
.17* 

■Mi 




o9f 
i8| 

37* 
93l 


.10 

.20 

.40 

$1.00 


.lOf 
.2li- 

$i.o6i 


.Hi 
.22* 

^ -45 
$1.12* 




9 " 
I day... 


;|i.io 
1.23I 
1.37^ 


$1.20 
1-35 
1.50 


$1.30 1^1.40 

i.62*[ 1.7s 


I 
I 


87* 


1.60 
1.80 
2.00 


1.70 
1.91} 

2.12i 


1.80 

2.02* 

2.25 


T.90 

2^I3f 

2^37 J 


2 days.. 


2^75 
4.12* 


3.00 
4-50 


Ul^ 


3^50 
5-25 


3 

5 


lU 


4.00 
6.00 


4-25 
6.37* 


4^50 
6^75 


4 75 

7^I2* 


4 " 

5 


1:87* 


6.00 
7-50 


6.50 

8.12* 


7.00 
8.75 


7 
9 


^7* 


8.00 
10.00 


8.50 
10.62* 


9.00 
11.25 


9- 50 
11.87* 


6 " 


8.25 


9.00 


9.75 


10.50 


11 


25 


12,00 


12.75 


13 50 


14.25 



346 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



N fO ■* >rt"0 t^OO O 



•oaa 



8M N ro -^ lovo t^oo On O ' 
OOOOOOOOO-i 






•AON 



O >- w ro "*■ ''^^ t>~00 ON O M fi ro -^ u^NO t^oo o> O 1- (N ro Tj- invo r~-00 On 
t-»t^t^t^t^t-^t^t^r^ t^OO COOOOOCOCOOOOOOOOO OnOnOnOnOnO-OnOnOnOn 

\OV0N0V0N0N0\0\0V0^NQvQ'^V0NCN0NOV0N0N0N0N0V0N0N0N0NC»N0N0*O 



•^30 






•Idas 



)\0^0'0^'0^'0^0'OVOVOVO'OVOvO'0'0'0*OVO^vDVOvO'OVOVOvO'0 



•Snv 



t^oo 00 00 00 < 



O- O ►-' N t^ -^ "^NO t^OO On I 



r^ -^ ionO t^oO 



•Ainf 



N rn ■* lONO t^OO On O 

in in lo lo lO Lo lo u'jno » 
loinioininiominin 



-.00 On O " « <^ T invO t-^ 
^ininininioioinio*ni 



•aunf 



r>.00 On O I- 

M i-c « « N 

m lo lo lo lo : 



IN CJ M N N m I 

m m m m lo lo 1 



m ro m rn ( 
in in lo lo > 



.OO ON O I 
I ro ro -J- ■ 

I in in m 1 



•Xhim 



•ludv 



^, -^ invo r^oo On O - (N ro -"J- in 



•qD.lBi\[ 



•q^d 



•UBf 



•D3a 



•AON 



•500 



•Idas 



•iJnv 
•Ainf 
•3unf 

•ludv 



•qaiBj^ 



•UBf 



invo »^oo On O 



NO l^oo On O I 

NO NO NO NO t^ I 



inNO r-oo On O 
ro m m m ro ■<^ 
m m ro m to ro 



mcnrofomromroi 

■^ inNO t^oo On o - I 
tv. t-^ t-» t^ t^ t^oo 00 



■ lONO t^OO 0\ O 



m Tf in NO t-^oo On o ■- N rr> Tj- mNO t-^oo o- O - w en -^ u _ 

. t-~ t^ r~ t^ h~ (-^ t^OO OOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOO OO^OnO'OnO-O- 
ifomrororommrororr; mcnromromfnroromcnmmm 



Tj- U-INO t-^OO On O M 



ro ro fO ro m ro ro ro ro ro 



O^ O •- N ro ■«■ lO 

lONO vo VO NO NO NO 

M fo m tn f/ ro m 



mvo t^oo On O « PI ro ■* iono i^oo On O i 



invo t-~oo On 



m -*- inNO 1^00 o- o 



OnOnO-OnOnOnOnOnO-OnO O O 



Ti- inNO f^OO On O 
■<^ -"l- ■«■ ^ Tf ij- in 
N N N (N N O « 

m ■<i- inNO rvoo o> 



m -» inNO t^oo 



in in '^ m I 



N N N CN| 



O « o 

(N « O 



m Tj- mvo t-^oo ON o •-■ M m -^ 1 
NN(vif)NNNmr»inmrni 

NNNMlNCJCIC»N«CtN( 



m "1- inNO t^oo O' O 



inNO NONONOVONONONOVONO 



m -1- iriNO t^oo On o -H 



OnQnOnOnOnOnOnOnOn 



Tj- inNO t^OD Ov O M CJ 



OOOOOOOOO 



"1NO f^OO o^ o 



M N en •* u^vO t^OO On O 



ft m ■* inNO t^OO On O 



N rr) ■* invO t«.00 On O 



>OVO t^oo On O 



N m ■* invO t'.OO On o 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AKD TABLES. 347 



DOMESTIC POSTAGE. 

First Class. — Letters and all written matter, whether 
sealed or unsealed, and all other matter sealed, nailed, sewed, 
tied, or fastened in any manner, so that it cannot be easily 
examined, tivo cents per ounce or fraction thereof. A " Spe- 
cial Delivery " ten-cent stamp when attached to a letter, in 
addition to the lawful postage, shall entitle the letter to im- 
mediate delivery at or within one mile of any post-oflSce. 
Postal cards, one cent each; with paid reply, two cents each. 

Second Class. — All regular newspapers, magazines and 
other periodicals issued at intervals not exceeding three 
months; the postage is one cent for each four ounces^ payable 
by postage stamps. 

Third Class. — Embraces printed books, pamphlets, cir- 
culars, engravings, lithographs, proof-sheets and manu- 
script accompanying the same, and all matter of the same 
general character, and not having the character of personal 
correspondence. Circulars produced by hektograph or sim- 
ilar process, or by electric pen, are rated as third class. 
The limit of weight for mail matter of the third class is four 
pounds, except in the case of single books exceeding that 
weight. The rate of postage on mail matter of the third 
class is one cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof. 

Fourth Class. — All mailable matter not included in the 
three preceding classes, which is so prepared for mailing as 
to be easily taken from the wrapper and examined. Rate. 
one cent per ounce or fraction thereof, except seeds, roots, 
cuttings, bulbs, plants, and scions, which are one cent per 
two ounces. Limit of weight, 4 lbs. Full prepayment com- 
pulsory. Liquids and other like injurious matter not admit- 
ted except under conditions which may be learned at any 
post-office. 

Registry fee, eight cents, which, with the postage, must be 
fully prepaid. The name and address of sender must be 
given on the outside of the envelope or wrapper. 

FOREIGN POSTAGE. 

To all parts of the Universal Postal Union (embracing 
nearly every civilized country): 

Ox Letters, five cents for each half ounce or fraction there- 
of; prepayment optional. Double rates are collected on 
deli"?ry of unpaid or short-paid letters. 



348 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



On newspapers, books, pamphlets, photographs, sheet 
music, maps, engravings, and similar printed matter, one 
cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof. 

To Canada (including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
Manitoba, and Prince Edward Island): Letters, two cents for 
each ounce or fraction thereof; Books, Circulars, and similar 
printed matter, one cent for each two otmces or fraction there- 
of; Second Class Matter, same as in the United States; 
Samples and Merchandise, one cent per ounce. Packages 
must not exceed 4 lbs. 6 oz. in weight; prepayment compul- 
sory. 

To Mexico: Letters, Postal Cards, and printed matter, 
same rates as in the United States. Samples, one cent per 
ounce; Merchandise other than Samples can only be sent 
by Parcel Post. 

Money Order Fees. — For Money Orders in denomina- 
tions of $100 or less, the following fees are charged: Orders 
not exceeding $2.50, 3c. ; over $2.50 to $5, 5c. ; $5 to $10, 8c. ; 
$10 to $20, IOC ; $20 to $30, i2c. ; $30 to $40, 15c. ; $40 to $50, 
• i8c. ; $50 to $60, 20C. ; |6o to $75, 25c. ; $75 to $100, 30c. 

Express Money Orders may be bought of the leading ex- 
press companies at the following rates: Not over $5, 5c.; 
$5 to $10, Be; $10 to $20, loc; $20 to $30, 12c.; $30 to $40, 
15c. ; $40 to $50, iSc. ; $50 to $60, 20c. ; $60 to $75, 25c. ; $75 
to $100, 30c. 

international or foreign money-order fees. 

On Algeria, Belgium, British India, Cape Colony, Constan- 
tinople, Denmark, Dominion of Canada, Egypt, England, 
France, German Empire, Hong Kong, Ireland, Italy, Ja- 
maica, Japan, Newfoundland, New South Wales, New 
Zealand, Portugal, Sandwich Islands, Scotland, Shanghai, 
Sweden, Switzerland, Tasmania, Victoria. 



For Orders of $10, or less, loc. 
Over $10, not exceeding $20, 20c. 
Over $20, not exceeding $30, 30c. 
Over $30, not exceeding $40, 40c. 
Over $40, not exceeding $50, 50c. 



Over $50, not exceeding $60, 6oc. 
Over $60, not exceeding $70, 70c. 
Over $70, not exceeding |8o, 80c. 
Over $80, not exceeding $90, 90c. 
Over f 9c 



not exceeding f 100, $1. 



Orders can also be obtained on Austria and the East Indies 
by remittance through the Postal Department of Switzer- 
land, subject to the rates of the Swiss Department to those 
countries. Also on Norway and the Netherlands, through 
the Postal Department ot the German Empiie, subject to 
the rates of the German Department to those countries, 



WEIGUT6 AXD MEASURES. 349 



III. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

CUSTOMARY SYSTEM OF WKIGHTS AND 
MExlSURES. 

I. Weights. 

A. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

I ton = 2000 pounds (lbs.);* 

t lb. = i6 ounces (oz.) = 256 drams = 768 scruples = 7680 grains ; 

I oz. = 16 drams = 48 scruples = 480 grains ; 

1 dram = 3 scruples = 30 grains ; 

I scruple = 10 grains. 

B. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, FOR DRUGS. 

I lb. = 12 oz. = g6 drams = 288 scruples = 5760 grains; 

I oz. = 8 drams = 24 scruples = 480 grains; 

I dram = 3 scruples = 60 grains; 

I scruple = 20 grains. 

C TROY WEIGHT, FOR JEWELS AND PRECIOUS METALS. 

X lb. = 12 oz. = 24 carats = 240 pennyweight (dwt.) = 5760 grains ; 

I oz. = 2 carats = 2odwts. = 480 grains; 

z carat = 10 dwts. = 240 grains ; 

I dwt. = P4 grains. 

II. Pleasures. 

A. LINEAR. 
X mile = 8 furlongs (frigs.) = 80 chains = 320 rods = 528a feet ;+ 
z furlong = 10 chains = 40 rods = 660 feet ; 

I chain = 4 rods = 66 feet ; 

I rod = i6Jfeet; 
I chain = 100 links ; 

I link =7.92 inches ; 
X yard = 3 feet = 36 inches ; 
I foot = 12 inches. 

B. SURFACE. 
I square mile — 640 acres ; 

I acre = 10 square chains = 160 sq. rods =s 4840 sq. yds. 
= 43,560 square feet. 

* I long ton = 20 imperial hundredweights (cwt ) = 2240 pounds. 
t I sea mile (Admiralty knot) = 6080 feet, or 1.1515 statute jnile. 



350 GENERAL TOPICS. 

C. CAPACITY. 

I. DRY MEASURE. 

I bushel = the volume of 77.627 lbs. of distilled water at 4'C.; 

I bushel — 4 pecks = 8 gallons = 32 quarts = 2150.4 cubic inches; 

1 peck = 2 gallons = 8 quarts = 537.6 " " 

I gallon = 4 quarts = 268.8 " ** 

I quart = 67.3 " ** 

2. LIQUID MEASURE, 
t gallon = the volume of 8,3388822 lbs. = 58,373 troy grains of distilled 

water at 4° C; * 
I gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 32 gills = 231 cubic inches ; , 

I quart = 2 pints — 8 gills = 57.75 " '* 

I pint = 4 gills = 28.88 " " 

Metric System of Weights and. Measures. 

I. LINEAR MEASURES. 
1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters (dm)= too centimeters (cm) = 1000 millimeter 
(mm) = .1 decameters (Dm) = ,01 Hectometer (Hm) = .001 Kilometei 
(Km) = .0001 Myriameter (Mm). 

I Mm = 10 Km = 100 Hm = 1000 Dm = 10,000 m; 
I Km = 10 Hm = 100 Dm = 1,000 m; 
I Hm = 10 Dm = 100 m; 
I Dm = 10 m ; 
I m = 10 dm =3 100 cm = 1000 mm ; 
X dm = 10 cm = 100 mm; 
I cm = 10 mm. 

a. SURFACE MEASURES. 
I Are (a) = 100 square meters (sq. m.) = .01 hectare (ha) ; 
I Are = I sq. Dm. = 100 square m ; 
X sq. Km = 100 Ha = 10,000 A = 1,000,000 sq. m ; 
I Ha = 100 A = 10,000 sq. m ; 
I A = 100 sq. m. 

3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
I liter (1) = I cubic decimeter (cdm) = 1,000 cubic centimeters (c. c.) =■ 
o.ooi cubic meter (cbm) = 10 deciliters (dl) = too centiliters (cl) =s .ot 
hectoliter (hi). 

X HI = 10 Dl = 100 1 = 1,000 dl = 10,000 cl ; 

I Dl = 10 1 = 100 dl =: 1,000 cl ; 

X 1 = 10 dl =s 100 cU 

4. WEIGHTS. 

1 kilogram (kg) = 100 decagrams (Dg) = 1000 grams (g); 

I gram = 10 decigrams (ag; = 100 centigrams (eg) = 1,000 milligrams (mg); 

I ton = 1000 Kg = 100,000 Dg = 1,000,000 g ; 

xoo Kg = 10,000 Dg = 100,000 g ; 

I Kg = 100 Dg ■= 1,000 g. 



■■■■ I Liipeii.a gallon = 277.274 cub. inches, or .16046 cub fooi; it cqa..i.s 
200-2 or verv nearly i^ U. S. liquid gallons, i cub. foot = 1720 cul) 
ci.cs --: 7.48 U. S, liquid gallons = 6.43 U. S- dry gal.ons = 6.23 Imperi..! 
.lions, 



WEIGHTS Al^D MEASURES. 



351 



Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric, 
and vice versa. 



Inches to 

Millimeters. 
I = 25.4001 

Meter to 

Inches. 

I = 39-3700 



LINEAR. 

Feet to Meters. Yards to Meters. 
.3048 .9144 

Meter to Feet. Meter to Yards. 
3.2808 1.0936 



Miles to 

Kilometers. 

1.6094 

Kilometer to 
Miles. 
.6214 



SQUARE. 



Sq. Inches to 
Sq. Centmr. 
I = 6.452 

Sq. Centime, 
to sq. in. 
1= .1550 



Sq. Feet to Sq. 

Decimeters. 
9.290 

Sq. Meters 

to Sq. Feet. 

10.764 



Square Yards to 

Square Meters. 

.836 

Square Meters 

to Square Yards. 

1. 196 



Acres to 

Hectares. 
.4047 

Hectares to 
Acres. 
2.471 



CUBIC. 



Cubic In. to 
Cu. Centmr. 
I = 16.387 

Cu. Centmrs 
to Cubic In. 
I = .0610 



Cubic Feet to 
Cubic Meters. 
.0283 

Cu. Decimeters 
to Cubic Inches. 
61.023 



Cubic Yards to 

Cubic Meters. 

.765 

Cubic Meters to 
Cubic Feet. 

35.314 



Bushels to 

Hectoliters. 

.3524 

Cubic Meters to 

Cubic Yards. 

1.308 



CAPACITY. 
'^°!L??"^ C^ubt Centimeter. ^-"^ ^° ^'^'^^- Gallons to Liters. 



I = 3-70 

Cu. Centi- 
meters to 
Fluid Drams. 
1= .27 



29-57 

Centiliters to 
Fluid Ounces. 

.338 



.9464 



3.7854 



Liters Decaliters to Hectoliters 
to Quarts. Gallons. to Bushels. 

2.8377 



1.0567 2.6417 



WEIGHT. 



Grains to 
Milligrams. 

I = 64.7989 

Milligrams 
to Grains. 
I = .01543 

Qirintals to 
Pounds Av. 
I = 220.46 



Avoirdupois 
Ounces to Grams. 

28.3495 

Kilograms to 
Grains. 
15432.36 



Avoirdupois 
Pounds to Kilo- 
Grams. 
.4536 

Hectograms to 
Ounces Av. 

3-5274 



Milliers or Tonnes 

to Pounds Av. 

2204.6 



Troy Ounces 
to Grams. 
31.1035 

Kilograms to 

Pounds Av. 

2.2046 

Kilograms to 
Ounces Troy. 

32.1507 



352 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



KILOGRAMS CONVERTED INTO POUNDS 
AVOIRDUPOIS. 



Kilos. 


o 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


o.o 


.ooo 


.022 


.044 


.066 


.088 


.110 


.132 


-154 


.176 


.194 


.1 


.220 


• 243 


.2dS 


.2S7 


-309 


■331 


-353 


•375 


•397 


.419 


.2 


,441 


.463 


-4^5 


.507 


-529 


-551 


•573 




.617 


-639 


•3 


.661 


.68^ 


-705 


.728 


.750 


.772 


-794 


.816 


.838 


.860 


•4 


.882 


.904 


.926 


.948 


.970 


-992 


1.014 


1.036 


1.058 


1.080 


•5 


1. 102 


1. 124 


1.146 


1. 168 


1.190 


1. 213 


1-235 


i---i57 


1.279 


1.301 


.6 


1-323 


1-345 


1-367 


I.S8Q 


1.411 


1-433 


1-455 


1^477 


1.499 


1.521 


•7 


1-543 


1-565 


1-S87 


1 .609 


1-631 


1-653 


1.676 


i.6g8 


1.720 


1.742 


.8 


1.764 


1.786 


1.808 


1.830 


1.852 


1-874 


1.896 


1. 918 


1.940 


1.962 


•9 


I 984 


2.006 


2.028 


2.050 


2.072 


2.094 


2. 116 


2.138 


2. 161 


2 183 





POUNDS CONVERTED INTO 1 


tlLO 


GRA 


MS 




Pou 


ads. 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 








000 


.005 


.009 


.014 


.018 


.023 


027 


032 


036 


.041 




1 


045 


.050 


•054 


•059 


.064 


.068 


073 


077 


082 


.086 




2 


091 


•095 


.100 


.104 


.109 


• 113 


118 


122 


127 


132 




3 


130 


.141 


•145 


.150 


-154 


•159 


163 


168 


172 


.177 




4 


181 


.186 


.191 


•195 


.200 


.204 


209 


213 


218 


.222 






227 


-231 


.236 


.240 


-245 


.249 


254 


259 


263 


.268 




6 


272 


.277 


.281 


.286 


.290 


-295 


299 


304 


308 


•313 




7 


318 


.322 


•327 


•331 


-3.3b 


.340 


345 


349 


354 


-358 




8 


363 


-367 


-371 


-376 


.381 


.386 


390 


395 


399 


.404 




9 


408 


-413 


•417 


.422 


.42b 


.431 


435 


440 


445 


-449 



INCHES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A FOOT. 

(Trautwine.) 



Ins. 


Foot. 


Ins. 


Foot. 


Ins. F 


^oot. 


Ins. F 
6 


'cot. 
5000 


Ins. 


Foot. 


uV 


.0026 




-0833 


2 


1667 


10 


•8333 


TS 


.0052 


1^ 


.0938 


2j^ 


2083 


6^ 


5417 


10^2 


.8750 


1/6 


.0104 


1% 


.1042 


3 


2500 


7 


5833 


11 


.9167 


M 


.0208 


.1146 


3^ 


2917 


7^ 


6250 


11^3 


-9583 


% 


•0313 


iy2 


.1250 


4 


3333 


8 


6667 


12 


1 . 0000 


^ 


.0417 




•1354 


4^ 


3750 


8^ 


7083 






% 


.0521 


ifi 


.1458 


5 


4167 


9 , 


7500 








.0625 


1^8 


•1563 


5^ 


4583 


9V2 


7917 






/8 


.0729 



















OUNCES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A POUND. 



1 oz. = 


06 lb. 


2 ' 


= 


13 " 


3 ' 


' = 


19 " 


4 ' 


' = 


25 \[ 


5 ' 


' = 


31 


6 ' 


' = 


38 '' 


I 1 


' = 


43 " 


8 ' 


' = 


50 



9 oz 


= 


56 1b. 


10 " 


= 


63 " 




= 


69 '' 




=: 


75 " 




= 


81 " 




— 


88 " 




z= 


94 '' 


16 " 


= 


I 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 353 

WEIGHT AND MEASURE CONVERSION TABLE. 







i" « 






<A 






c/5 


'c 




5^ 

P 
= 


(A 





2| 
1^ 


el 
° 


si 
1^ 


Si 

rt 


^ 


s 


i 


fc 


S 


M 


S 


I 


25-4 


•0394 


• 30s 


3-28 


1.609 


.621 


.868 


I -153 


2 


50.8 


.0787 


.610 


6.56 


3.219 


1.243 


1.73s 


2.306 


3 


76.2 


.ii8r 


.914 


9.84 


4.828 


1.864 


2 .603 


3.458 


4 


101.6 


•1575 


1. 219 


13.12 


6.437 


2.486 


3.470 


4.6x1 


5 


127.0 


.1969 


I •5-^4 


16.40 


8.047 


3-107 


4.338 


5-764 


6 


152.4 


,2362 


1.829 


19.69 


9.656 


3.728 


5.205 


6.917 


7 


177-8 


.2756 


2.134 


22.97 


11.265 


4 -350 


6.073 


8.070 


8 


20 ^. 2 


■3150 


2.438 


26 25 


12.875 


4.971 


6.940 


9.222 


9 


228.6 


.3543 


2.743 


29-53 


14.484 


5-593 


7.808 


10.375 













en 


tr. *J 


<n 


«• 




2^ 


... 1» 
































M 




22 

U5 




II 


. 3 


J2 


2'S 
:r 3 

OC2 






cr2 


tw 


S^ 


3 3 


= ^ 


S:S 


^ 2 




C/5 


C/) 


< 


w 


uu 


u2 


n 


X 


I 


.0929 


10.76 


•405 


2.47 


.028 


35-3 


• 35 


2.84 


2 


.1858 


21-53 


.809 


4.94 


•057 


70.6 


• 70 


5 


68 


3 


.2787 


32.29 


1.214 


7.41 


.085 


105.9 


1.06 


8 


51 


4 


.3716 


43.06 


1.619 


9.88 


• 113 


141.3 


1. 41 


II 


3,5 


5 


•4645 


53.82 


2.024 


12.36 


.142 


176.6 


1.76 


14 


19 


6 


.5574 


64.58 


2.428 


14.83 


.170 


211. 9 


2.11 


17 


03 


7 


.6503 


75-35 


2-833 


17-30 


.198 


247.2 


2.47 


19 


86 


8 


,7432 


86.11 


3.238 


19.77 


.226 


282. 5 


2.82 


22.70 


9 


.8361 


96.88 


3.642 


22. -24 


-255 


317-S 


3-17 


25.54 








X) 



















3 

E 



. 


2 ^ 

tn rt 

2^ 




M 


■" 

11 


^1 

^0 


2 "5 

el 

3f^ 




U. 


u 


a 


J 





hJ 








I 


29.6 


.338 


-Q5 


1.06 


3-79 


.26 


28.3 


.063 


2 


59-1 


.676 


1 


89 


2. II 


7-57 


-53 


56.7 


.125 


3 


88.7 


1.014 


2 


84 


3-17 


11.36 


■79 


85.1 


.188 


4 


118.3 


1-352 


3 


79 


4-23 


15.14 


1.06 


"34 


.250 


5 


147.9 


1.690 


4 


^ 


5.28 


18.92 


1.32 


141. 8 


.313 


6 


177.4 


2.028 


5 


68 


6-34 


22.71 


1-59 


170. 1 


•375 


7 


207,0 


2.366 


6 


62 


7.40 


26.50 


1.85 


198-5 


.438 


8 


236.6 


2.704 


7 


57 


8.45 


30.28 


2. II 


226.8 


.500 


9 


266.1 


3.042 


8.52 


9.51 


34.07 


2.38 


255-1 


.563 



354 GENERAL TOPICS. 

TABLE OF RECIPROCALS OF NUMBERS. 

The reciprocal of a number is the quantity obtained by 
dividing one by that number. 



No. 


Recip- 
rocal. 


No. 


Recip- 
rocal. 


1 
No. ' 


Recip- 
rocal. 


No. 


Recip- 
rocal. 


I 


I. 00000 


26 


.03846 


51 


01961 


76 


.01316 


2 


. 50000 


27 


.03704 


52 


01923 


17 


.01299 


3 


•33333 


28 


•03571 


53 


01887 


78 


.01282 


4 


.25000 


29 


.03448 


54 


01852 


79 


.01266 


5 


. 20000 


30 


•03333 


55 


01818 


80 


.01250 


6 


.16667 


31 


.03226 


56 


01786 


81 


.01235 


7 


.14286 


32 


.03125 


57 


01754 


8^ 


.01220 


8 


.12500 


33 


.03030 


58 


01724 


83 


.01205 


9 


.mil 


34 


.02941 


59 


01695 


84 


.01190 


lO 


. I 0000 


35 


.02857 


60 


01667 


85 


.01176 


II 


.09091 


36 


.02778 


61 


01639 


86 


.01163 


12 


.0B333 


37 


.02703 


62 


01613 


87 


.01149 


13 


.07692 


38 


.02632 


63 


01587 


88 


.01136 


14 


•07143 


39 


■02564 


64 


01563 


89 


.01124 


15 


.06667 


40 


.02500 


65 


01538 


90 


.oim 


16 


.06250 


41 


.02439 


66 


01515 


91 


.01099 


17 


.05882 


42 


.02381 


^.l 


01493 


92 


.01087 


18 


•05556 


43 


.02326 


68 


01471 


93 


.01075 


19 


.05263 


44 


■02273 


69 


01449 


94 


.01064 


20 


.05000 


45 


.02222 


70 


01429 


95 


.01053 


21 


.04762 


46 


.02174 


71 


01408 


96 


.01042 


22 


•04545 


47 


.02128 


72 


01389 


97 


.01031 


23 


.04348 


48 


.02083 


73 


01370 


98 


.01020 


24 


.04167 


49 


.02041 


74 


01351 


99 


.01010 


25 


.04000 


50 


.02000 


75 


01333 


100 


.01000 



WEIGHTS AK^D MEASURES. 



351 



comparisons of fahrenheit, centigrade 
(celsius), and reaumur therm03ieter 

scal.es. 



Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


-f2I2 


-j-ioo 


-1-80 


+158 


+70 


+56 


211 


99.44 


79-56 


157 


69.44 


55-56 


2IO 


98.89 


79.11 


156 


68.89 


55." 


209 


98.33 


78.67 


155 


68.33 


54-67 


208 


97.78 


78.22 


154 


67.78 


54.22 


207 


97.22 


77-78 


153 


67.22 


53-78 


206 


96.67 


77-33 


152 


66.67 


53-33 


205 


96.11 


76.89 


151 


66.11 


52.89 


204 


95.55 


76.44 


150 


65.55 


52.44 


203 


95 


76 


149 


65 


52 


202 


94.44 


75.56 


148 


64.44 


51-56 


201 


93 89 


75-" 


147 


63-89 


5i.li 


200 


93 33 


74.67 


146 


63 33 


50.67 


199 


92.78 


74.22 


145 


62.78 


50.22 


198 


Q2.22 


73-78 


144 


62.22 


49-78 


197 


91.67 


73.33 


143 


61.67 


49-33 


196 


91. II 


72.89 


142 


61. 11 


48.89 


19s 


90-55 


72.44 


141 


60.55 


48.44 


194 


90 


72 


140 


60 


48 


193 


89.44 


71.56 


139 


59-44 


47-56 


192 


88.89 


71. II 


138 


58.89 


47.11 


191 


88.33 


70.67 


137 


58.33 


46.67 


190 


87.78 


70.22 


136 


57.78 


46.22 


189 


87.22 


69.78 


135 


57.22 


45.78 


188 


86.67 




134 


56.67 


45-33 


187 


86.11 


68.89 


133 


56.11 


44-89 


186 


85.55 


68.44 


132 


55-55 


44.44 


185 


85 


68 


131 


55 


44 


184 


84.44 


67.56 


130 


54-44 


43-56 


183 


83.89 


67.11 


129 


53-89 


43-" 


182 


83-33 


66.67 


128 


53.33 


42.67 


181 


82.78 


66.22 


127 


52-78 


42.22 


!8o 


82.22 


65.78 


126 


52.22 


41.78 


179 


81.67 


65-33 


125 


51-67 


41-33 


178 


81. II 


64.89 


124 


51.11 


40.89 


177 


80.55 


64.44 


123 


50.55 


40.44 


176 


80 


64 


122 


50 


40 


175 


79-44 


63.56 


121 


49-44 


39 56 


174 


78.89 


63.11 


120 


48.89 


39-" 


173 


78.33 


62.67 


119 


48.33 


38-67 


172 


77.78 


62.22 


118 


47.78 


38.22 


171 


77.22 


61.78 


117 


47.22 


37-78 


170 


76.67 


61.33 


n6 


46.67 


37-33 


169 


76.11 


60.89 


"5 


46.11 


36.89 


168 


75-55 


60.44 


114 


45.55 


36.44 


167 


75 


60 


"3 


45 


36 ^ 


166 


74-44 


59.56 


112 


44-44 


35 56 


165 


73-89 


59.11 


III 


43 89 


35-11 


164 


72.33 


58 67 


no 


43-33 


34-67 


163 


72.78 


58.22 


109 


42.78 


34.22 


162 


71.22 


57.78 


108 


42.22 


33-78 


161 


71.67 


57.33 


107 


41.67 


33-33 


160 


71.11 


56.89 


106 


41. II 


32.89 


159 


70-55 


50.44 


105 


40-55 


32.44 



356 



C^ENEKAL TOPTCS- 



COMPARtSONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER 

SCALES. — Continued. 



Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Rdauraur. 


+104 


+40 


+32 


+50 


4-10 


+8 


103 


39-44 


31.. 56 


49 


9-44 


7.56 


102 


38.89 


31. II 


48 


8.89 


7. II 


lOI 


38.33 


30.67 


47 


8.33 


6.67 


ZOO 


37.78 


30.22 


46 


7.78 


6.22 


99 


37.22 


29.78 


45 


7.22 


5-78 


98 


36.67 


29.33 


44 


6.67 


5.33 


97 


36.11 


28.89 


43 


6. II 


4-89 


96 


35-55 


28.44 


42 


5.55 


4-44 


95 


35 


28 


41 


5 


4 , 


94 


34.44 


27.56 


40 


4.44 


3.56 


93 


33.89 


27.11 


39 


3-89 


3-" 


92 


33-33 


26.67 


38 


3.33 


2.67 


91 


32 78 


26.22 


37 


2.78 


2.22 


go 


32.22 


25.78 


36 


2.22 


1.78 


89 


31.67 


25.33 


35 


1.67 


1.33 


88 


31. II 


24.89 


34 


i.ii 


0.89 


87 


30.55 


24.44 


33 


0.55 


0.44 


86 


30 


24 


32 








85 


29.44 


23.56 


31 


-0.55 


-0.44 


84 


28.89 


23.11 


30 


I.II 


0.89 


83 


28.33 


22.67 


29 


1.67 


I. '3 


C2 


27.78 


22.22 


28 


2.22 


1.78 


81 


27 22 


21.78 


27 


2.78 


2.22 


80 


26.67 


21-33 


26 


3-33 


2.67 


7? 


26.11 


20.89 


25 


3.89 


3." 


78 


25-55 


20.44 


24 


4.44 


3.56 


''I 


25 


20 


23 


5 


4 


76 


24.44 


19.56 


22 


5-55 


4.44 


75 


23.89 


19. II 


21 


6. II 


4.89 


74 


23.33 


18.67 


20 


6.67 


5.33 


73 


22.78 


18.22 


19 


7.22 


5-78 


72 


22.22 


17.78 


18 


7.78 


6.22 


71 


21.67 


17.33 


17 


8.33 


6.67 


70 


21. II 


16.89 


16 


8.89 


7.11 


69 


20.55 


16.44 


15 


9.44 


756 


68 


20 


16 


14 


10 


8 


(^1 


19.44 


15.56 


13 


10.55 


8.44 


66 


18.89 


15. II 


12 


II. II 


8.89 


65 


18.33 


14.67 


11 


11.67 


9-33 


64 


17.78 


14.22 


10 


12.22 


9.78 


63 


17.22 


13.78 


9 


12.78 


10.22 


62 


16.67 


13-33 


8 


13-33 


10.67 


61 


16. II 


12.89 


7 


13.89 


11. 11 


60 


15-55 


12.44 


6 


14.44 


11.56 


5? 


15 


12 


5 


15.00 


12 


58 


14.44 


11.56 


4 


15.55 


12.44 


57 


13.89 


II. II 


3 


16. II 


12.89 


56 


13.33 


10.67 


2 


16.67 


13-33 


55 


12.78 


10.22 


I 


17.22 


13.78 


54 


12.22 


9.78 





17.78 


14.22 


53 


11.67 


9.33 


— I 


18.33 


14.67 


52 


II. II 


8.89 


2 


18.89 


15 " 


'' 


IO-55 


8.44 


3 


19.44 


15-56 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER 

SCAIjES.— Continued. 



Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Rfeumur. 


-4 


—20 


-16 


-23 


-30-55 


-24.44 


5 


20.55 


16.44 


24 


31. II 


24.89 


6 


21. II 


16.89 


25 


31.67 


25-33 


7 


21.67 


17-33 


26 


32.22 


25-7S 


8 


22.22 


17.78 


27 


32.78 


26.22 


9 


22.78 


18.22 


28 * 


33-33 


26.67 


lO 


23-33 


18.67 


29 


33-^9 


27.11 


II 


23.89 


19. II 


:^o 


34- < 1- 


27.56 


12 


24.44 


19.56 


31 


35 


28 


■3 


25 


20 


32 


35-55 


28.44 


14 


25-55 


20.44 


33 


36.11 


28.89 


15 


26.11 


20.89 


34 


36.67 


29-33 


16 


26.67 


21.33 


35 


37.22 


29.78 


17 


27.22 


21.78 


30 


37-7^ 


30.22 


18 


27.78 


22.22 


37 


38.3; 


30.67 


19 


28.33 


22.67 


38 


38.80 


31. II 


20 


28.89 


23.11 


39 


39-44 


oi„56 


21 


29.44 


23-56 


40 


40 


32.00 


22 


30 


24 









Formula for Converting Degrees Centigrade to Fahrenheit, and 
vice versa : 






For Degrees Reau7nur, substitute 4 for the figure 5 in the 
preceding formulas. 



358 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



GOVERNMENT LAND MEASURES. 

In the system of government survey, lines running north 
and south are drawn parallel to a fixed line (principal me- 
ridian) at a distance of six miles apart ; these are called 
range lines. At right angles virith these, other parallel lines 
{town lines) are drawn, which then run east and west. The 
two sets of lines form squares containing 36 square miles 
each, called townships. A certain number of townships 
form a county. Each square mile of a township is called a 
section, containing 64b acres, and these are numbered regu- 
larly I to 36, commencing at the northeast corner, as shown 
in the accompanying diagram. Section 16 in each township 
is set apart for school purposes. 

Sections are divided by lines running north and south, 
and east and west, into quarter sections, designated as the 
northeast quarter, northwest quarter, southwest quarter, 
and south-east quarter of the section. These quarters con- 
tain 160 acres of land each, and are again divided into 
quarters, each containing forty acres, which is the smallest 
sub-division recognized in government survey. Lands are 
usually sold in tracts of forty acres, or a multiple thereof, 
except in case of land bordering on lakes, which are frac- 
tional sections and may contain more or less than forty 
acres. These are called govern?nent lots. 



TOWNSHIP. 



SECTION. 









^___^ 






6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


I 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 


19 


20 


21 


22 
27 


23 


24 


30 


29 


28 


26 


25 



















31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 



N. W. 
Quarter. 


NW^ 
of 

NEM 


NE14 

of 
NE34 


SW^ 

of 
NEV4 


SE14 

of 

NEM 


S. W. 
Quarter. 


S. E. 
Quarter. 



The description of a 40-acre lot would then, for example, 
read as follows : The northeast quarter of the northeast 
quarter of section i in township 24 north, range 7 west. 



WEIGHTS AT^T) MEASURES. 359 

TO MEASURE CORN ON THE COB IN CRJBS. 

(Waring.) 

When the Crib is Equilateral, 

Rule, — Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in 
inches, and that again by the height in inches, and divide the 
product by 2748 (the number of cubic inches in a heaped bushel), 
and the quotient will be the number of bushels of ears. Take 
two thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled 
corn. 

Example. — Required the number of bushels of shelled corn 
contained in a crib of ears, 15 ft. long by 5 ft. wide and 10 ft. 
high. 

Solution: 180 in. (length) X 60 in. (width) X 120 in. (height) 
= 1,296,000 -4- 2748 = 471.6 heaped bushels, two thirds of which 
is 314.6 bushels, shelled. 

When the Crib is Flared at the Sides. 

Multiply half the sum of the top and bottom widths in inches 
by the perpendicular height in inches, and that again by the 
length in inches, and divide the product by 2748; the quotient 
will be the number of heaped bushels of ears. Take two 
thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. 

RECKONING OF AMOUNT AND VAX.UE OF HAY. 

Four hundred cubic feet of hay is roughly estimated as a 
ton, but there is great variation in the ratio of weight to 
volume, dependent upon the kind of hay, time of cutting, 
and treatment in storing. In general, the finer the stalk of 
the plant the heavier the hay ; also, of course, the more 
closely packed in putting away, and the nearer the bottom 
of the mow the heavier. Grass allowed to stand till nearly 
ripe before cutting will be the lighter. 

In estimating by measurement, multiply together the fig- 
ures representing the length, width, and height of hay, and 
divide the product by the number of feet in a ton. For ex- 
ample, if the hay is 40 ft. long, 16 ft. wide, and 18 ft. from 
the bottom to the top of the mow, and the bulk agreed is 
400 cub. ft. to the ton, the mow will contain 40 X 16 X 18, 



3 GO GENERAL TOPICS. 

Table for Finding? the Value of Hay. 



■r-. 

5 

o 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$S 


$9 


$10 


$11 


50 


O.IO 


0.13 


0.15 


O..S 


0.20 


0.23 


0.25 


0.28 


70 


0.14 


0.18 


0.21 


0.25 


0.28 


0.32 


0.35 


0-39 


90 


0.18 


0.23 


0.27 


0.32 


0.36 


0.41 


0.45 


0.50 


TOO 


0.20 


0.25 


0.30 


0.35 


0.40 


0-45 


0.50 


0-55 


300 


0.60 


0.75 


0.90 


I -05 


1.20 


1-35 


1.50 


'.65 


400 


0.80 


1. 00 


1.20 


1.40 


1.60 


1.80 


2.00 


2.20 


SOD 


I. GO 


1-25 


1.50 


1-75 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


2-75 


700 


1.40 


1.75 


2.10 


2-45 


2.80 


3-15 


3-50 


385 


900 


1.80 


2.25 


2.70 


3-^5 


3-6o 


4-05 


4-50 


4-95 


1000 
1200 


2.00 
2.40 


2.50 
3.00 


3. CO 

3.60 


3-50 
4.20 


4.00 
4.80 


4-5° 
5-40 


5.00 
6.00 


5-50 
6.60 


1500 
1600 


3.00 
3.20 


3-75 
4.00 


4-50 
4.80 


5.60 


6.00 
6.40 


6.75 
7.20 


7.50 
8.00 


8.25- 
8.80 


1700 
1800 
19CO 


3-40 
3.60 
3.80 


4-25 
4-50 
4-75 


5.10 
5-40 
.5-70 


5-95 
6.30 
6 65 


6.80 
7.20 
7.60 


7.65 
8.10 
8.55 


8.50 
9.00 
9-5° 


9-35 
9.90 
10.45 


2000 


4.00 


5.00 


6.00 


7.00 


8.00 


9.00 


10.00 


11.00 



•a 


















c 

3 


$12 


$13 


$.4 


$•5 


$16 


$17 


$i3 


cx, 
















50 


0.30 


0-33 


0.35 


0.38 


0.40 


0.43 


0-45 


70 


0.42 


0.46 


0.49 


"•53 


0.56 





60 


0.63 


90 


0.54 


0.59 


0.63 


0.68 


0.72 





77 


0.81 


100 


0.60 


0.65 


0.70 


0-75 


0.80 





85 


0.90 


300 


1.80 


1-95 


2.10 


2.25 


2.40 


2 


55 


2.70 


400 


2.40 


2.60 


2.80 


3.00 


3.20 


3 


40 


3.6G 


500 


3.00 


3-25 


3-50 


3-75 


4.00 


4 


25 


4-50 


700 


4.20 


4-55 


4.90 


5-25 


5.60 


5 


95 


6.3G 


900 


5-40 


5-8s 


6.30 


6.75 


7.20 


7 


05 


8.10 


1000 


6.00 


6.50 


7.00 


7-SO 


8.00 


s 


so 


9.00 


1200 


7.20 


7.80 


8.40 


9.00 


9.60 


10 


20 


10. 8o 


1300 


9.00 


9-75 


10.50 


11.25 


12.00 


12 


75 


13-50 


i6co 


9.60 


10.40 


11.20 


12.00 


12.80 


13 


60 


14.40 


1700 


10.20 


11.05 


11.90 


12.75 


13.60 


^4 


45 


15-30 


1800 


10.80 


11.70 


12. 6g 


13-50 


14.40 


15 


30 


16.20 


1900 


11.40 


12.35 


13-30 


14.25 


15.20 


16 


15 


17.10 


2000 


12. GO 


13.00 


14.00 


15.00 


16. CO 


17 


00 


18.00 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 361 

which equals 11,520 cub. ft.; 11,520 divided by 400 equals 
28 tons and 320 cub. ft., or 28| tons. The table on page 360 
is from the A?nerican Agriculturist annual. 

The price per ton of 2000 lbs. being known, it is easy to 
find the value of any fraction of a ton at $4 to $18 per ton. 
If a farmer has 1565 lbs of hay on his wagon, and the dealer 
has bought it at $7 per ton, he finds by looking across the 
table from 1500 lbs. to the column at the top of which is $7, 
that the value of 1500 lbs. at $7 is $5.25, the value of 60 lbs. 
21 cents, and the value of 5 lbs. 2 cents, making a total of 
$5.48. 

To find the value of any fraction of a ton at $7.40, $7.60, 
$7.80, etc., find the value at $7 and add to it one tenth the 
value at $4, $6, $8, etc. 

STRENGTH OF ROPES. 

Hemp rope, i in. in circumference, is calculated to sus- 
tain a weight of 200 lbs.; i^ in., 450 lbs.; 2 in., 800 }bs.; 
2^ in., 1250 lbs. ; 3 in. , 1800 lbs. ; 4 in., 3200 lbs.; 5 in., 5000 
lbs.; 6 in., 7200 lbs. Hemp is considered twice as strong 
as manila, and wire rope twice as strong as hemp. ( Year- 
book U. S. Dept. Agric.) 

The diameters corresponding to the circumferences given 
are, in the preceding order: .318, .477, .636, .795, .955, 
1.27, 1.59, and 1. 91 inches. 



362 GENERAL TOPICS. 

liEGALi WEIGHTS OF GRAIN, SEEDS, ETC, 

The table shows the number of pounds per bushel re- 
quired by law or custom, in the sale of articles specified, in 
the several States of the Union. 



States. 



Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode Island. 

Connecticut . 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

District of Columbia. . . 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi . 

Louisiana 

Texas . 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Kentucky. 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri „ 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

South Dakota 

North Dakota 

Montana 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Washington 

California 

Oregion 

Oklahoma 



48 



56 50 
56 50 
56 ... 
561 50 



50 



56 32 

57 32 
55 32 
541 32 
48: 32 
57 j 32 
57 32 
57I 32 
57; 32 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



3C3 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 

(Trautwinh.) 



Aluminum 

Anthracite, i. 3-1. 84, usually , 

" broken, of any size, loose 

(A ton, loose, averages from 40 to 43 cubic feet.) 
Ash, American white, dry 

*' " " perfectly dry 

Asphaltum, 1-1.8 

Boxwood, dry 

Brass (copper and zinc) cast, 7.8-8.4 

Bronze (copper 8 parts, tin i part, gun metal), S.4- 
8.6 

Cement, English Portland 

Charcoal, of pines and oaks 

Cherry, perfectly dry , 

Chestnut, perfectly dry 

Coal, bituminous 1.2-1.5 

broken, of any size, loose 

(A ton occupies from 43 to 48 cubic feet.) 

Copper, cast, 8.6-8.8 

Cork 

Coke, loose, of good coal 

(A ton occupies 80 to 97 cubic feet.) 

Elm, perfectly dry 

Fat 

Glass, 2.5-3.45 

Gold, cast, pure , 

Gravel, about the same as sand, which see. 

Hemlock, perfectly dry 

Hickory, perfectly dry 

Ice, .9I7-.922 

India rubber 

Iron, cast, 6.9-704, , 

Lard 

Lead, 11.38-11./.7 

Lime,qi:ick 

" '* ground loose, per struck bu. 62-72 lbs.. 
Limestone and marbles 

Mahogany, Spanish, dry 

Maple, dry... 

Mercury, at 60* F 

Oak, white, perfaotly dry, .66-.88 



Average 
Specific 
Gravity. 



Average 
Weight 01 
I cu. foo;, 
in Pounde. 



2.6 
1-5 



.61 
•752 
'•4 

.96 



8.5 



.672 
.66 



•35 



.56 
•93 



19.258 



.4 
.85 

.92 

•93 

7- IS 

•95 
11.38 
i-S 

2.6 

.85 

•79 

13.58 



[ 162 
93 
52- 

38 
47 
83 

60 
504 

529 

Si- 
»5 

42 

di 
84 
47- 

15 
23- 



t:304 



25 

53 

% 

446 

59 
709 

95 
164 

S3 

49 

846 



48. 



364 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.— 

Continued. 



Oak, red, black, etc . 

" live, .88-1.02 

Oils, olive, whale 

Peat 

Petroleum 

Pine, white, perfectly dry, .35-45 

" vellow. Northern, .48 to .62 

" " Southern, .64-.80 

Platinum, 21-22 

QuartZj common, pure, 2.64-2.67. 

Rosin o . . . . c 

Salt, coarse, per struck bu., Syracuse, N. Y., 56 lbs. 
Sand of pure quartz, dry and loose, per struck bu. 

ii2-i33lbs 

Sand ot pure quartz, wet. 

Silver 

Snow, fresh fallen 

" moistened and compacted by rain 

Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, loose 

Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, moderately 

rammed 

Soils, common loam, slightly moist, loose 

" " " as a soft, flowing mud 

Spruce, perfectly dry 

Sulphur 

Steel, 7-7-7-9 

Sycamore, perfectly dry 

Tar 

Tin, cast 

Walnut, perfectly dry 

Water, pure rain or distilled, at 32"> F. (barometer 

30 in.) ■> 

Water, pure rain or distilled, at 62° F. (barometer 

30 in.) 

Water, pure rain or distilled virater at 212O F. 

(barometer 30 in.) 

Water, sea, 1.026-1.030 

Wax, bees' 

Zinc, 6.8-7.2 



Average 
Specific 
Gravity. 



Average 

Weight of 

I cu. foot, 

in Pounds. 



.878 
.40 

•55 
.72 

21-5 

2.65 



7.0 



32-45 

59-3 

57-3 

20-30 
54-8 

25- 

34-3 
45. 
'342. 

165 

68.6 



... 


90-106 




118-129 


•5 


655. 




S-12 




15-20 




72-80 


... 


90-100 


... 


70-76 


... 


104-112 


•4 


25. 


.0 


125. 


•«5 


490. 


.59 


37- 


.0 


62.4 


•35 


459. 


.61 


38. 


... 


62.417 


.0 


62^3SS 




59-7 


.028 


64.08 


•97 


60.5 



437-5 



Note.— Green timbers usually weigh from one fifth to nearly one half 
more than dry and ordinary building timbers when tolerably seasoned ; 
about one sixth more than perfectly dry. 



WEIGHTS AN^D MEASURES. 



365 



a 1) 
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lis 



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o O 



flJ -55 c a 8 Si 

— 1) <u QJ H 

o -^ u (J o 

II R. 



° ^ ^ 

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rt ^ 



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S^O O II II Cw „ 

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Q tJ o Pi 



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c3soc5 o 200 0200 22202000 

o "o "o 'o'o'o "o 

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366 GENERAL TOPICS. 

FLUCTUATING CURRENCY. 





Silver 
Silver 

Silver -j 

Silver 
Silver 
Silver 
Gold (nominally) 
Silver 
Silver 

Silver 
Silver 


Boliviano (= loo centavos) 

Peso 

Shanghai tael 

Haikwan tael (customs) 

Peso 

Peso 

Rupee (= i6 annas) 

' Yen (= TOO sens) j 

Dollar (peso) (= loo centa- 
vos) 
Sol (= loo centesimos) 
Mahbub (= 20 piasters) 


about 

$ .44 
•44 
.65 
.72 
• 44 
•44 
.21 


Central America. 

China 

Colombia 

Ecuador ... 

India. 


Japan -} 

Mexico 


I. CO 

•50 

.48 






Tripoli 


•44 



MONEY CONVERSION TABLE. 









^ 



















In 




(/> 












TJ 




V 








c 




C 
ji 




c 

3 


'u 




.ti 


a 




JZ 


OJ 


U 


^ 




c ^ 





2« 

, a 






< 

a 




c^O 


cS 


%^ 


fe 


U 


oc^. 


2 




^ 


S 


U. 


fc, 





Ui 


u 


J 


S 4-87 


$ 0.24 


% 0.19 


S 0.40 


S 0.52 


$ 0.27 


S 0.20 


2 


9-73 


.48 


-39 


.80 


1.03 


-■^4 


.41 


3 


14.60 


•71 


•58 


I. 21 


1-55 


.80 


.61 


4 


19.47 


•QS 


•77 


I. 61 


2.06 


1.07 


.81 


.<; 


24-33 


1. 19 


•97 


2.01 


2.58 


1-34 


1.02 


6 


29.20 


1.43 


1. 16 


2.41 


3^o9 


1.61 


1.2? 


7 


34-07 


1.67 


^•35 


2.81 


3-61 


z.iB 


1.42 


8 


38.93 


1.90 


■'•54 


3-22 


4.12 


2.14 


1.62 


9 


43.80 


2.14 


1.74 


3.62 


4.64 


2.41 


1.83 


10 


48.67 


2.38 


1-93 


4.02 


5-X5 


2.68 


2.0:! 


20 


97-33 


4-76 


3-86 


8.04 


10.30 


5-36 


4.06 


30 


146. oo 


7.14 


5-79 


12.06 


15-45 


8.04 


6.09 


40 


194.66 


9^52 


7.72 


16.08 


20.60 


10.72 


8.12 


SO 


243-33 


11.90 


9-65 


20.10 


25-75 


^3 40 


10.15 


100 


486.65 


23.80 


19.30 


40.20 


51.50 


26.80 


20.30 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



367 



IV. STATISTICAL TABLES. 



AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED 
STATES, 1890. (Eleventh Census.) 



States. 


Area in 
Sq. Miles. 


Popula- 
tion. 


States. 


Area in 
Sq. Miles. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 


52,250 

113,020 

^ 5^,850 

158,360 

103,925 

4,990 

2,050 

70 

58,680 

59,475 

84,800 

56,650 

36,350 

3i,4ooj 

56,025 
82,080 
40,400 
48,720 
33,040 
12,210 
8.31S 
58,915 
83,365 
46,810 
69,4^5 

146,080 
77,510 

110,700 
9,305 


1,513,017 

59,620 

1,128,179 

1,208,130 

412.198 

746,258 

168,493 

230,392 

391,422 

1,837,353 

84,385 

3,826,351 

2,192,404 

182.984 

58.385* 

1,911,896 

1.427,096 

1,858,635 

1,118.587 

661.086 

1,042,390 

2,238.043 

2,093,889 

1.301,826 

1,289,600 

2,679,184 

132,159 

1,058,910 

45.761 

376,350 


New Jersey.. 
New Mexico. . 

New York 

N. Carolina 

N. Dakota 

Ohio 


7,815 
122,580 
49,170 
52,250 
70,795 
41,060 
39,030 
96,030 
45,215 

1,250 
30,570 
77,650 
42,050 
265,780 
84,970 

9,565 
42.450 
69,180 
24,780 
56,040 
97,890 


1,444-93? 

153,^9.- 
S,997,35;- 
1,617,947 

182, 7i(. 

3,67-.., 3i(, 

61,83-? 

313,767 
5,258,014 

345,506 

1.767,518 

2,235,523 
207,905 
332,422 

1,655,980 
349,390 
762,794 

1,686,880 
60,705 


Delaware 

Dist. of Colum. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 


Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.. 
Rhode Island.. 

S. ("arolina 

S Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 


Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian Ter 


Iowa 


Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington.. . 
W. ViTfrinia. .. 

Wiscoiisin 

Wyoming 

Total 

Alaska 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

Philippine Isl- 
and .s 


Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 


Michitjan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada . . . . 


3,602,990 

531,000 
6,640 
3,668 

115,300 
45,872 


62,632,250 

30,329 
109,030 
813,927 

8,000,000 
1,631,696 


N'wHampshire 


Cuba 





* Indians on reservations in various states and territories. 



AREA AND POPULATION OF CANADA, 1891. 



Provinces 

and 
Districts. 


Are.'i in 
Sq. Miles. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Provinces 

and 
Districts. 


Area in 
Sq. Miles. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia.... 


21,950 
227,-00 
20.550 
28,100 

64,066 


2,114,321 

1,488,535 

450,396 

321,263 

152,500 


Brit. Columbia. 
Pr. Ed. Island. 
The Territories 

Total... 


382,300 

2,000 

2.371. 481 


98,173 
109,078 
98,967 


Manitoba 


3.4'5,647 


4.833,239 



368 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



M 


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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



369 



AVERAGE AND ACTUAL DATE OP LAST AND 
FIRST KILLING FROST. 

(U. S. Weather Bureau.) 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas. .. . 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dist. of Col 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas ........ 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland . . . . 
Massachusetts . 
Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi.. .. 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New Jersey . . 

New Me.xico. .. 
New York 

North Carolina 



Locality. 



Mobile 

Montgomery, 
Little Rock. . 
Fort Smith.. 

Denver 

New Haven.. 
Washington. 
Cedar Key. . 
Jacksonville 

Pensacola 

Atlanta 

Augusta... . 

Savannah 

Cairo 

Chicago 

Springfield.. . 
Indianapolis. 
Des Moines. . 
Dubuque... , 

Keokuk 

Dodge City. . 
Leavenworth 
Louisville . .. 
New Orleans. 
Shreveport.. . 
Portsmouth . . 

Baltimore 

Boston 

Detroit 

Grand Haven 
Marquette. . . 

St. Paul 

Duluth 

Moorhead 

Vicksburg.. . 

St. Louis 

Omaha 

North Platte. 
Atlantic City 

Cape May 

Santa F^ 

Albany 

Buffalo 

New York 

Oswego 

Rochester 

Charlotte. ... 
Hatteras 



Spring. 



Average. 


Last. 


Earliest. 


Feb. 24 


April 6 


Nov. 2 


Mar. 10 


April 6 


Oct. 21 


Mar. 21 


April 14 


Oct. 8 


Mar. 22 


April 6 


Oct. 7 


May 25 


June 6 


Sept. 10 


May 30 


May 30 


Sept. 15 


April 4 


April 20 


Oct. 4 


Feb. 4 


Mar. 12 


Nov. 2s 


Feb. 24 


Mar. 27 


Nov. 12 


Mar. 7 


April 6 


Nov. 12 


Mar. 25 


May 21 


Oct. 16 


Mar. 17 


April 5 


Oct. 8 


Mar. I 


April 5 


Nov. 2 


Mar. 31 


May 8 


Oct. 2 


April 23 


May 25 


Sept. 27 


April 16 


May 2=; 


Sept. 13 


April 17 


May 21 


Sept. 26 


April 24 


May 31 


Sept. 12 


April 27 


May 23 


Sept. s 


April 10 


May 2 


Sept. 18 


April 22 


May 23 


Sept. 23 


April 6 


May 21 


Sept. 13 


April 8 


May 15 


Sept. 30 


Feb. 2 


Mar. 27 


Nov. II 


Feb. 26 


Mar. 31 


Oct. 13 


April 14 


Mays 


Sept. 7 


April 6 


May 3 


Oct. 6 




May 17 
May 28 


Sept. 30 
Sept. 23 


May 2 


May 30 


May 28 


Aug. 21 


May 18 


June II 


Aug. 22 


May I 


May 25 


Sept. I 


May 6 


June 8 


Sept. 13 


May 18 


Junes 


Aug. 25 


Mar. 3 


April 22 


Oct. 19 


Mar. 31 


May 2 


Oct. 14 


April 15 
May I 
April 6 




Sept. 20 
Sept. 10 
Oct. 4 




April 29 


April 6 


May 3 


Oct. 20 


April 22 


May 22 


Sept. 19 


April 21 


May 22 


Oct. 15 


May 27 


May 29 


Sept. 21 


April 14 


April 25 


Oct. 15 


April 26 


May 29 


Sept. 26 


May 3 


May 29 


Sept. 26 


April I 


May 3 


Oct. 8 


Feb. 27 


April 5 


Nov. 22 



Fall. 



370 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



DATE OF LAST' AND FIRST KILLING FROST- 

Continued. 




STATISTICAL TABLES. 



371 



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372 GENERAL TOPICS. 

METEOROLOGICAL. DATA FOR CANADA. 





Normal M 


ean Temperature of the Air. 


Province or City. 


Monthly Temperature. 


Mean for the 




Lowest. 


Highest. 


Year. 


Ontario 

Quebec 

New Brunswick. . 


19.3° F. 

21.2 
14.7 
0.6 
22.8 
22.9 
16.8 
18.4 
22.9 


69.8° F. 

70.2 

62.8 

63.3 

64.3 

659 

72.2 

67.4 

72.2 

59-7 

63-5 


43.8° F. 

42.6 

39-9 

41-7 

40.5 

32.6 

48.1 

44.1 

44.3 

40.3 

431 


Prince Edward Island 

Manitoba . 




Toronto 


Montreal 


St. John, N. B 


Halifax, N S 





Normal rainfall in inches per year : Toronto 29.42, Windsor 23.78, 
Peterborough 20.55, Montreal 27.26, Quebec 19.26, St. John 33.27, Halifax 
43.08, Glace Bay 55.49, Sydney 49.42, Winnipeg 16.83, Spence's Bridge 3.88. 



COMPARISON OP LEADING INDUSTRIES IN THE 
UNITED STATES. (U, S. Census of 1890, in Round Numbers.) 



Agriculture ; 

Forest products, total 

Forest industries, enu- 
merated 

Forest products, not enu- 
merated (estimated) . . . 
Manufactures using wood 

Mineral products, total 

Coal 

Gold and silver 

Iron and steel 

Manufactures of iron and 

steel 

l.eather 

Leather manufactures 

Woolen " 

"Cotton " 



Millions. 

15,982 

562 



343 
486 
414 



=97 
354 



Thousands 
8,286 



348 



300 
57 
176 



186 
219 





i 

Pi 


Millions. 


Millions. 


102 


245 


294 


442 


109 




40 

96 


327 


32 
25 

88 


79 
136 
153 


77 


203 


70 


155 



446 

598 

907 

610 
160 
99 
479 

131 

178 
289 
338 
268 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



373 



ARKAS OF APPROPRIATED, VACANT, AND RE- 
SERVED LANDS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1898. 

(U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



States and 
Territories. 


Total Area. 


Unap- 
prop. 
and Un- 
reserved. 


Reserved 


Total 
Govern- 
ment 
Land. 


Appropri- 
ated. 


Alabama 

Arizona 


acres. 

32,658,000 
72,792,500 
33,543,500 
99,361,083 
66,390,650 
35,264,500 
52,830,200 
19,575,040 
52,383,000 
28,863,188 
36,819,000 
51,689,444 
29,685,000 
43,796,000 
95,259,720 
49,137,339 
70,336,500 
78,197,005 
44,902,987 
24,753-663 
61,626,218 
48,158,555 
52,580,000 
42,684,084 
35,275,000 
62,433.000 
579,024,029 


per cent. 

1.60 
71.07 
11.02 
42.72 
59.81 

4.98 
83.68 


per cent. 

.26 

21.12 

.01 

16.35 

9-38 

.06 

3.67 

100,00 

1.89 

5-" 

.24 

9.64 


per cent. 
1.86 
92.16 
11.03 

59-07 
69.19 
5-04 
87.35 
100.00 

3-9^ 

20.71 

1.29 

1.02 

87.16 

21.61 

95-74 

80.45 

52.61 

57-42 

67.12 

49.64 

93.80 

57.57 

2.21 

91.70 

.04 


per cent. 

98.14 

7.81 




88.07 






Colorado 


30.81 




94.96 


Idaho 


12.65 


Indian Territory... 
Kansas ........ 




2.02 
2.62 

1-37 
11.07 

1.29 

1.02 
75-13 
21.47 
87-33 
69.76 
45-82 
28.31 
58-25 
20.55 
83-43 
31-49 

1.17 
78.54 


96.09 


Louisiana 


92.27 




08.39 








98.71 
98.98 




12.03 
.14 

10.69 

6.79 

29.11 

8.87 

23.09 

10.37 

26. oB 

1.04 

13.16 

.04 


Montana 


12.84 
78.39 


Nevada . 


4.26 


New Mexico 

North Dakota 

Oklahoma. ... 


19.55 
47.39 
42.58 




32.88 


South Dakota 

Utah 


50.36 
6.20 


Washington 

Wisconsin .... 


42-43 
97.79 




8.30 


Other States 


99.96 


Total 


1,900,019,201 


30.21 


7.64 


37.85 


62.15 







FARMING POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 

1870, 1880, and 1890. 

Ninth Tenth Eleventh 

Census. Census. Census. 

Total population 38,558,371 50,152,866 62,622,250 

Total engaged in agriculture 5,992,471 7,670,493 9,013,201* 

Total in professional and personal 

services .••.-■•• 2,684,793 4,074,238 5.304.829 

Total in manufactures and mining. 2,707,421 3,837,112 5.091,669+ 

Total in trade and transportation... 1,191,238 1,810,256 3,325,962 

Engaged in all classes of occupa- 
tions 12,375,923 17,392,099 22,735.661 

Engaged in agriculture, per cent. 48.4 44.1 39.6 



374 



GEKERAL TOPICS. 



NUMBER AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE AGRI- 
CULTURAL POPULATION TEN YEARS OF AGE 
AND OVER. (Eleventh Census.) 



Occupation, 



Farmers and planters 

A gricultural laborers 

'^lardeners, florists, nurserymen, etc 

Dairymen and dairy women 

Other agricultural pursuits 

Total 



Male. 



5,055,130 

2,556,957 

70,186 

16,161 

19,058 



7,717,492 



Female. 



226,427 

447,104 

2,415 

1,734 

462 



678,142 



Total. 



5,281,557 

3,004,061 

72,601 

17,895 

19,520 



8,395,632=' 



* 36,9 per cent of all persons having gainful occupations. 

NUMBER OF FARMS IN UNITED STATES AND 
THEIR VALUE. 

(Eleventh Census.) 



States. 


No. of 
Farms. 


Value. 


States. 


No. of 
Farms. 


Value. 


Alabama 


157,772 


$111,051,390 


Nevada 


1,000 


$12,339,410 


Arizona 


1,426 


7,222,230 


N. Hampshire 


29 151 


66,162,600 


Arkansas 


124,760 


118,574,422 


New Jersey.. 


30,828 


159,262,840 


California... 


52,894 


697,116,630 


New Me.xico. 


4,458 


8,140,800 


Colorado. . . . 


16,389 


85,035,180 


New York.... 


226,223 


968.127,286 


Connecticut . 


26,350 


95,000,595 


N. Carolina.. 


178,359 


183,977,010 


Delaware 


9,381 


39,586,080 


N. Dakota... 


27,611 


75,310,305 


Dist. of Col.. 
Florida 


382 
34,228 


6,471,120 
72,745,180 


Ohio 


251,430 
8,826 


1,046,738,247 
8,581,170 


Oklahoma . . . 


Georgia 


171,071 


152,006,230 


Oregon 


25,530 


115,819,200 


I laho 


6,603 


17,431,580 


Pennsylvania 


211,557 


922,240,233 


Illinois 


240,681 


1,262,870,587 


Rhode Island 


5,500 


21,873,479 


iiidiana 


198,167 


754,789,110 


S. Carolina . . 


115,008 


99,104,600 


owa 


201,903 


857,581,022 


S. Dakota.... 


50,158 


107,466,335 


'■Ciinsas 


166,617 


559,726,046 


Tennessee.... 


174,412 


242,700,540 


Kentucky .... 


179,264 


346,339.360 


Texas 


228,126 


399,971,289 


Louisiana 

Maine 


69,294 
62,013 


85,381,270 
98.567,730 


Utah .. . 


10,517 
32,573 


28,402,780 
80,427,490 


Vermont 


Maryland . . 


40,798 


175.058,550 


Virginia 


127,600 


254,490,600 


Massachus'ts 


34,374 


127,538,284 


Washington . 


18,056 


83,461,660 


Michigan 


172,344 


5^6,190,670 


W. Virginia.. 


72,773 


151,880,300 


Minnesota... 


116,851 


340,059,470 


Wisconsin..,. 


146,409 


477,524.507 


Mississippi.. . 
Missouri .. . 


144,318 
238,043 


127.423,157 
625,858,361 


Wyoming — 


3,125 


14,460,880 








Montana 


5,603 


25,512,340 


Total 


4,564,641 


$13,279,252,649 


Nebraska — 


113.608 


402,358.913 









* Agriculture, fisheries, and mining. 

t Manufacturing and mechanical industries. 



STATISTICAL TATTLES. 



375 






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376 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



AVERAGE AGRICULTURAL WAGES IN THE 
UNITED STATES IN 1893-1895, INCLUSIVE. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Years. 


Per Month for Sea- 
son or Year. 


Per Day in Harvest. 


Per Day other than 
Harvest. 


With 
Board. 


Without 
Board. 


With 
Board. 


Without 
Board. 


With 
Board. 


Without 
Board. 


1893 

1894 

1895 


$13.29 
12.16 
12.02 


$ig.io 

17.74 
17.69 


$1.03 
•93 
.92 


$1.24 
1-13 
1. 14 


$.69 
.62 


$.89 
.81 
.8r 



VALUE OF PRINCIPAL FARM PRODUCTS OF 
THE UNITED STATES. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Products. 


1859. 


1879. 


1889. 


Total 
Value. 


Per 

Cent. 


Total 
Value. 


Per 
Cent. 


Total 
Value. 


Per 
Cent. 


Meats 

Corn 

Hay 

Dairy products. 
Wheat 


1300,000,000 
360,680,878 
152,671,168 
240,400,580 
124,635,545 
211,516,625 
75,000,000 
206,639,527 


17.9 
21.6 
9.1 
14.4 

.U 

4.5 
12.4 


$800,000,000 
694,818,304 
409,505,783 
391,131,618 
436,968,463 
271,636,121 
180,000,000 
440,438,353 


22.1 
19.2 
II. 3 
10.8 
12.0 
7-5 
50 
12. 1 


$900,000,000 
597,918,829 
526,632,062 
411,976,522 
342,491,707 
307,008,114 
200,000,000 
472,492,249 


23-9 
15-9 
14.0 
II. 




8.2 


Poultry 

Other products* 


A:l 


Grand total. . 


1,671,544,323 


100 


3,624,498,642 


100 


3,758,519,483 


100 



* Oi/ier products include barley, buckwheat, fla.x fiber, flaxseed, hemp, 
hops, Irish potatoes, leaf tobacco, maple sirup, maple sugar, oats, rice, 
rye, sorghum-molasses, sweet potatoes, and wool. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



377 









(fl 




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378 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



79 















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380 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



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<UkV <L>x:--^:=r--- ^-^ X V o o c>>c ojC-m ojiS^:- i-la 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



381 



AREA, PRODUCT, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL, 
CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1898. 
(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Indian corn, bu 
Wheat, 

Oais, " 

Rye, " 

Barley, " 

Buckwheat, " 
Potatoes, " 
Tobacco,* lbs... 

Hay, tons 

Cotton.t bales., 



Total Pro- 
duction. 



,924,184,660 

675.148,705 

730,906,643 

25-657,522 

55,792,257 

11,721,927 

192,306,338 

403,004,320 

66,376,920 

10,897,857 



Total 
Area of 
Crop. 



Acres. 

77,721,781 

44,055,278 

25i777.iio 

1,643,207 

2,583,125 

678,332 

2-557,729 

594,749 

42^780,827 

24,319,584 



Total 

Value of 

Crop. 



023,428 
770,320 
1405,364 
875,350 
064.359 
271,462 
574,772 
258,070 
060,647 
491,412 







3 c 


i." 


>v- 


!>u 






> a 


> a. 


< 


< 


Cents 




28.6 


24.7 


.58. 1 


15.3 


25-5 


28.3 


46.2 


15.6 


41-3 


21.5 


44.9 


17.2 


41-3 


75-2 


6.0 


677-5 


$6.14 


1-55 


29.32 


0.45 



Bo 

. V 

> a 



$ 
7.10 
8.91 
7.23 
7.22 
8.92 
7-77 
31. II 
40.79 

931 
13.14 



* Crop of 1896. + Crop of 1897. 

THE PRINCIPAL CEREAL PRODUCTS OF THE 

UNITED STATES. 
As Shown by the Census Returns, from 1850 to 1890. 



Cen- 
sus 
of 


Indian 
Corn. 


Wheat. 


Oats. 


Barley. 


Rye. 


Buck- 
wheat. 


1850 
i860 
1870 
1880 
1890 


Bushels. 

592,071,104 

838,792,742 

760,944,549 
1,754,861,525 

2,112,327,547 


Bushels. 

100,485,944 

173,104,924 

287,745,626 

459,479-505 

468,373,968 


Bushels. 

146,584,179 

172,643,185 

282,107,157 

407,858,999 

809,250,666 


Bushels. 
5,167.015 
15,825,898 
29,761,305 
44,113,495 
78,332,976 


Bushels. 

14,188,813 
21,101.380 
i6,qi8,795 
19,831,595 
28,421,398 


Bushels. 

8,956,912 
17,571,818 

9,821,721 
11,817,327 
12,110,349 



PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS CROPS IN CANADA, 

1891. (Census of 1891.) 



Wheat 42,144,774 bu, 

Barley 17,148,198 " 

Oats 82,515,413 " 

Rye 1,328,322 " 

Peas and beans 15,514.836 " 

Buckwheat 4.886,122 " 

Corn (maize) 10,675,886 " 

Potatoes 52,653,704 " 



Turnips and other 

roots.. .. 49,555,902 bu. 

Grass and clover 340,650 '• 

Fruits, grapes, etc 68,864,181 lbs. 

Tobacco 4,277,936 " 

Hops , 1,126,230 " 

Flaxseed 137,015 bu. 



Area of improved land in Canada, 1891 28,537,242 acres. 

'* " " " under crop 19,904,826 " 

" " gardens and orchards 464,462 " 

•' " pastures 15,284,788 



* Crop of 1894. 



382 



GENEKAL TOPICS. 



AVERAGE COST PER ACRE OF RAISING WHEAT, 

CORN, AND COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES, 

1893.* 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Rent of land 

Manure or fertilizers 

Preparing- ground 

Seed 

Sowing or planting 

Cultivating 

Harvesting, gathering, or picking. 

Thrashing 

Ginning and pressing 

Housing 

Repairing implements 

Marketing 

Other expenses 



Total $ 



Wheat. 


Corn. 


Cotton, 
Upland. 


Cotton, 
Seab'd. 


$2.81 


$3-03 


$2.88 


$2.36 


2 


16 


1.86 


I 


46 


3-75 


1 


87 


1.62 


2 


81 


3-65 




96 







21 


•38 




M 


.42 




28 


.46 






1.80 


I 


31 


1.73 


I 


19 


1.22 


3 


37 


5-17 


I 


20 


.... 


I 


65 


2.6^ 




37 


•50 




42 


.42 




76 


1.26 




64 


.91 








41 


•51 


$11. 


69 


$11.71 


$15 


42 


$21.95 



AVERAGE FARM PRICE OF VARIOUS AGRICUL- 
TURAL! PRODUCTS ON DEC. 1 IN EACH YEAR 
FROM 1890 TO 1898. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Crop. 


1890. 

T" 
0.506 
0.838 
0.629 
0.424 
0.648 

0-577 

0.777 

7-74 

0.086 

0.077 


1891. 

"T" 
0.406 
0.839 
0.774 
0.31S 
0.540 

0-579 
0.371 
8.. 39 
0.073 
0.084 


1892. 

~$" 

0.393 

0.624 

0.548 

0.317 

0.472 

0.534 

0.673 

8.49 

0.084 


1893. 

~%~ 
0.365 
0.538 
0-513 
0.294 
0.411 
0.583 

0.070 
0.081 


1894. 

$ 
0.457 
0.491 
0.501 
0.324 
0.442 
0.556 
0.536 
8.54 
0.046 
0.068 


1895. 

0.253 
0.509 
0.440 
0.199 

0.337 

0.452 

0.266 

8.35 

0.076 

0.069 


1896. 

T" 
0.215 
0.726 

0.187 
0.323 


1897. 


1898. 


Corn per bushel 

Wheat " 

Rye ;; 

Oats " 

Barley " 

Buckwheat per bush.. . 
Irish potatoes " 

Hay per ton 

Cotton per lb 

Leaf tobacco per lb 


% 
0.263 
0.80S 
0.447 
0.212 
0.377 
0.421 
0.547 
6.62 
0.066 


S 
0.287 
0.582 

0.255 
0.413 

6.00 
0.057 



* Data for wheat and corn consolidated from returns from nearly 30,000 
leading farmers scattered throughout the United States. The data for 
cotton were secured in 1897, and are the averages of returns from over 
3400 planters. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



383 



<1Dh 



5£ 



t>. t^oo c^oo vo t^^ ^ lo ro m •>*■ fo 01 



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ro m f, m ^ "-> 



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oo M u-jroM uiM 0*0 r<jOO 00^*^1^ 



vo O O NO -> 
■<j- -4- 01 f^oo 



ro t^ On c-ioo I- m ►- On r^ -^ 
-.NO O On On lA O O On t^NO t^ 



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^r~.-rONO ir>-!)-ONO r<-iNO 



m cnNO NO O CO t-^NO ri 

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! •^ rf) o" ►T d- r^ !>• 'ONC no" rood 6 >- 

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384 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



\r) Cf "^ rf t) OM mo -^r-^i-NO O t^" w 'J-" O n mON>nmTtmt^rpt>. 


ir. 




00 m in m m ti-oo t^-^NHVOOOOM^ONCNi t^vo mON(Ni-mi-0tv 


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tt 


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On 


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ci 


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■<^ 




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ro (N IN rr [^CO On on ro Th ON On -3- Onno w 0^ 0\ moo t^ W m t.. N tv moo no 












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NO 


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mNO ^ m m m ttvO no .>J-mo "j-mMoo moo f^T^MHMmOMPiNooOM 


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rTntTNo" onnd nt^nd'oo co' d" m ^voncTno' cI On in m m' no mNO o o in m oo^co m 
„ „ « H ON oo ON ON m t^ o moo nono ommm^tN o mNO m ooo oo oo m 
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1 



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1 


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oomoiOPiooociO^O>-NOOC! 
CO ooo NO QNO mm->j--*omm moo 
no" m in o' in m oco t^cd ci cf w m in 
vo CO ON m t^ mNO m - o O m c^ 

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« oo mo mo mNO in ^ o m t^NO oo^ 
4 IN NO M CO ooo m tCcdoo' t^ m moo 
mom^.t^MHrnMc^j-mc. 





H 1- t^ O O O 



t~ r~-'0 'i-NO NO o I 



r~.No p) mNO in m a^ o^ ■♦no o n 
m mi ..4-N0 w m*<*-t^mt~~H ot^mw 



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Tj- o On O NO 



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TATibTJCAL TABLES. 



385 






N (^ O to O^ N fO 
rovo O O -O-O 00 



>- O lO r^ 






00 r^ O 0\ fO 
(M - VO IT) t^ 

O vo O ni lO 



oo t^vo r>. 



vo r>. (VI frjoo TT moo >o 
■^ o' cT N M oo" 6 mc6 md" 
O ro CO M o\ 



03 .i; 
!r, '^ B 



oo O N "^-^-Tfro .4-00 



u-1 t^ I 



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•* O ^ t~-oo 
N t^ ro 10 o> 
ro t^ U-) Tj- to 
»OvO u-j M o 

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O CO roo m mco 



O^ tv Tj- (-^ m in fvvo O w m 
;- -^ q 00 N O ^^ t-. Os'O ro 10 ro M r>) t^ ^^^g 
I invO - t^ C>^ C>rot>r?)c>tCrot^dtC>-''r^io 



t^OO 00 VO P) o\ 



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™ (U 1- 



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i ro O lOVO o r^ -^ 



. t^oo ro t^^o 



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t^co N o 00 ■- o< t^oo c a> 



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i 



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38G 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



\%\ 














8 ; 



O O M 

■<f ro a- 
N CN O 



NOOO-^MMONOMOOOOOOONVOrOMl/lO't^r^i 
vo rr)\o CO O'OO N 00 o> M 00 o- t^^ m ir> r- H- c>oo m (N CJ i 
vo'oo' oo' m" rn rn c^ ■>? di'O ■<}■ ro >o •- « i-T m t^oo 6^ ro m tv i 

t^ r>^oo novo irivo O -^ 0) m " "~ 



O ■* ■* O w CO t^ 

O I- MD o m r~-oo 
m" rn cfvcT ci^ tC 
M •* (N ■* ro t^ M 
O M to •>»■ lO O ro 
ro rn M vo" -^ 



!vo 












1 




r 



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Tj-O toiOCN O O "^n -^vO t^ lO Ov I 
\0 rfico CJ t^oo t-^oo '^00 00 Ov O (^ ■ 

VOOOMMt-MfOM -"l-OO 00 O 00 I 

t-~00 M t^-00 >- O roioOvO >- ni 
TT N ro lO fo tC\o c?co M- w cj 0) ' 



M^ (N O O ci rovo M n <s r^ 
(n'oo' w'vo' >n cf c>co' cTvo'vo' 

vo 0) oo 00 w tooo t~>0O 00 t^ 



nvo 00 I- lo lo Tj- « 



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r^ ■* IN rovo 00 I 
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00 t^oo 

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o " 

t^VO 



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O '-' 1^00 •* rhoo >-> 



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3J3 = C c 
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i^s-ills 



r- w - -^ C! 









STATISTICAL TABLES. 



387 



NUMBER AND VALUE OF FARM ANIMALS IN 
THE UNITED STATES, 1870-95. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Farm Animals. 


Jan. I, 1870. 


Jan. I, 1880. 


Jan. I, 1890. 


Jan. I, 1895. 


Horses, number. 


8,248,800 


11,201,800 


14,213,837 


15,893,318 


value... 


$671,319,461 


$613,296,611 


$978,516,562 


$576,730,580 


Mules, number.. 


1.179,500 


1,729,500 


2,331,027 


2,333.108 


value ... 


$128,584,769 


$105,948,319 


$182,394,099 


$110,927,834 


Milch cows, No. 


10,095,600 


12,027,000 


15,952,883 


16.504,629 


value.. 


$394,094,745 


$279,899,420 


$352,152,133 


$362,601,726 


O.xen and other 










cattle, number 


15,388,500 


21,231,000 


36,849,024 


34,364,216 


value.. 


$346,926,440 


$341,761,154 


$560,625,137 


$482,999,129 


Sheep, number.. 


40,853,000 


40,765,900 


44,336,072 


42.294,064 


value 


$93,364,433 


$90,230,537 


$100,659,761 


$66,685,767 


Swine, number.. 


26,751,400 


34,034,100 


51,602.780 


44,165,716 


value.... 


$187,191,502 


$145,781,515 


$243,418,336 


$219,501,267 


Total value of 










farm animals.. 


$1,822,327,377 


$1,576,917,556 


$2,418,766,028 


$1,819,446,306 



NUMBER OF FARM ANIMALS IN CANADA, 1891. 

(Census of i8gi.) 



Provinces. 



Ontario 

Quebec .. 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Manitoba 

British Columbia 

Prince Edward Island 
The Territories 



Horses, 



771,838 
344,290 
65,047 
59,773 
86,735 
44.521 
37.392 
60,976 



Working 


Milch 


Oxen. 


Cows. 


12,424 


876,167 


45,676 


549,544 


28,424 


141,684 


7,510 


106,649 


19,199 


82,712 


2,631 


17-504 


116 


45,849 


7,583 


37.003 



Sheep. 



,021,769 

730,286 

331.492 

181.941 

35.838 

49,163 

147,372 

64,920 



Swine. 



,121,396 
369,608 
48,048 
50,945 
54.177 
30,764 
42,629 
16,283 



REGISTERED, OR PEDIGREED, CATTLE OF 
SELECTED BREEDS. (U. S. Department of Agriculture,) 

Estimates of the number living in the United States, 1898. 



Breeds. 


Regis- 
tered. 


Living. 


Breeds. 


Regis- 
tered. 


Living. 


Ayrshires 


22,000 
2,871 

18,343 

1,128 

16,600 

100,000 


6,050 
1,200 

10,000 
500 

1 1 ,000 

60,000 


Jerseys 


184,000 

25 

1,321 

19,068* 

366,545 

25 


90,000 

25 

1,200 

? 

140,000 

25 


Brown-Swiss.. 

Devons 

Dutch Belted.. 
Guernseys .... 
Hoistein-Frie- 


Normandies.... 
Polled Durhams 

Red Polls 

Shorthorns 

Simmenthalers.. 

Total 




731,926 


320,000 



* Includes all in Great Britain and United States. 



^ss 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



DAIRY PRODUCTS PRODUCED ON FAR3IS, AC- 
CORDING TO THE ELEVENTH CENSUS. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agricultvj-e.) 



States and Territories. 



Butter. 



Cheese. 



Milk. 



Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts . . 
Rhode Island.... 

Connecticut 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North Carolina., 
South Carolina. . 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

West Virginia. . . 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan ...... 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota. 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

South Dakota... 
North Dakota. . 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington 

Oregon 

California 

Total, 1889... 
Total, 1879... 
Total, 1869... 



Pounds. 

15,593.315 

7,942,840 
23,314,063 

8,358,703 
965,456 

7,196,095 
98,241,813 

8,367,218 
76,809,041 

2,026,498 

9,999,602 
17,949,966 
13,129,374 

5,737,557 

14,483,323 

867,195 

14,548,435 

12,988,637 

2v-89,774 

32,100,560 

15,724.144 

28,314,389 

14,^63,627 

29,038,406 

74,990,307 

50,197,481 

48,4/7,766 

57,^21,486 

46, -.5,623 

34,766,409 

72,0:307^ 

43,108,521 

46,117,076 

27,818,078 

13,127,244 

5,712,566 

1,062,185 

4,8,269 

3,282,086 

86,042 

115,203 

1,759,354 

489.657 

1,078,103 

3,482,225 

4,786,277 

26,776,704 



Pounds. 

696,052 

341,235 

609,586 

122,900 

24,631 

112,566 

4,324,028 

23,613 

439,060 

359 

9,573 

109,187 

60,760 

2,476 

12,833 

1,731 

6,i3T. 

4,808 

3,930 

145,730 

21,328 

69,919 

74,372 

64,822 

1,068,08-; 

328,68-j 

360, n48 

343,456 

906,266 
676,642 

1,038,358 

288,620 

759,210 

463,831 

303,951 

131,374 

11,512 

15,196 

87,183 

18,931 

10,855 

163,539 

51,207 

207,213 

71,281 

265,576 
3,871,575 



Gallons. 

57,969,791 
42,633 268 
90,712,230 
82,571,924 
10,610,547 
54,413,822 

663,917,240 
64,003,953 

368,906,480 
10,699,362 
46,601,218 
78,143,459 
55,250,665 
23,833,631 
52,234,508 
5,056,790 
55,508,687 
50,803,371 
12,881,927 

118,475,320 

54,325,673 
107,657,116 

59,449,066 
118,497,289 
326,925,396 
224,537,488 
200,510,797 
367.269,464 
303,701,134 
182,968,973 
486,961,411 
193,931,103 
201,608,099 
144,768,263 

59,666,523 

26,566,112 
6,038,096 
3,064,588 

19,680,791 

717,155 

709,225 

8,614,694 

2,532,052 

5,085,863 

19,873,281 

25,042,276 

111,191,186 



:,023,82i,770 
777,229,367 
514,088,188 



18,725,218 
27,272,489 
53,492,153 



5,207,121,309 
529,632,966 
235.374,522 



STATTSTICAL TABLES. 



389 



STATiSTiCTS OF BUTTKR, CHEESE, AND CON- 
DENSED MILK FACTOlllES IN THE UNITED 

STATES. (Eleventh Census.) 



Totals fo'' be United States. 



Number of establishments reporting — 

Capital employed, aggregate dollars 

Plant, total value " 

Land '' 

Buildings " 

Machinery " 

Live assets — 

Expenses, total annual " 

Employes average number 

Total wages paid dollars 

Earnings of skilled operatives, weekly; 

Average for males above 16 years " 

Average for females above 15 years . " 

Average for children " 

Hours of labor, daily average: 

May to November hours 

November to May '' 

Materials used: 

Aggregate cost dollars 

For butter: 

Gathered cream . pounds 

Milk " 

Total cost dollars 

For cheese: 

Milk pounds 

Total cost dollars 

For condensed milk: 

Milk pounds 

Sugar " 

Total cost dollars 

Fuel and rented power, cost " 

Products: 

Aggregate value " 

Butter made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value , dollars 

Cheese, full cream: 

Quantity . . pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese, skim: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese, all other made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese, total made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Condensed milk: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Skim-milk and all other products, value 



Butter and 

Cheese 
Factories. 


Urban 
Estabs, 


4.552 

16,016,573 

11,639,692 

968,333 

5,588,257 

5,083.102 

4,376,881 

813-954 

14-369 

5,116,005 


160 
607,590 
449-880 
145,692 
150,149 
154,039 

i57-,7«o 

61.228 

552 

274,700 


9.48 
5-35 
2-75 




11.09 
10.03 




49,819,301 


1,545,273 


483,630.741 

1,893,319,242 

29,538,827 




2,684,550,517 
16,953,992 




83,617,655 

13,372,365 

2,792,086 

534,396 




60,635,705 


2,050,338 


181,284,916 
36,675,411 




184,158,174 
16,112,871 




22,467,132 
1,230,297 




31,409,759 
2,459,783 




238,035,065 
19,802,951 




37,926,821 
3,586,927 





390 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



CHEESE, BUTTER, AND CONDENSED-MILK FAC- 
TORIES, ACCORDING TO STATES. 

(Eleventh Census.) 



State. 



New York. 

Wisconsin 

Iowa 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Illinois 

Vermont 

Minnesota 

Kansas 

Michigan 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Indiana 

Connecticut 

Other States 

Total for the United States, 



No. of 
Factories. 



>3o8 

966 

497 

330 

300 

262 

123 

106 

101 

100 

61 

58 

52 

49 

239 



Employes. 



3,075 

1,817 

2,545 

890 

904 

1,540 

310 

855 

312 

424 

1S6 

475 
187 
162 
687 



14,369 



Value of 
Products. 



$14,385,966 
6,960,711 
10,545,182 
3,001,606 
5,319,434 
8,004,991 
1,602,641 
2,958,476 

919,787 
1,179,139 

400,551 
i,iC3,ooo 

402,556 

881,327 
2,890,338 



$60,635,705 



WOOL. PRODUCT OF THE UNITED STATES, 1898. 



Total. 



Pulled 
Wool. 



Total Prod- 
uct, 1898. 



Number of sheep, April i, 1898 . . 

Average weight of clip, lbs 

Wool, washed and unwashed, lbs 

Shrinkage, per cent 

Wool scoured, lbs 



35,671,914 

6.44 

229,860,065 

61 

89,545,210 



36,860,619 

40 
22,116,371 



266,720,684 



;ii,66i,58i 



PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF SUGAR IN 
THE UNITED STATES, 1897. (Willett & Gray.) 



Domestic Sugar. 


Tons. 


Foreign Sugar. 


Tons. 


Total, 
Tons. 


Cane-sugar 

Beet- " 

Maple- " 

Sorghum-sugar . . . 


289,009 

41,347 

5,000 

335,656 


Cane-sugar 

Maple-" 

Sorghum-sugar . . 
Total.... 


1,066,684 

616,635 

77,288 


1,355,693 

\ 735,270 

5,000 

300 


Total.... 


1,760,607 


2.006,263 

1 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



391 



BEET-SUGAK PRODUCTIOX IN THE UNITED 
STATES, 1898-9, BY FACTORIES. (VVillett & Gray.I 



Location of Factory. 


Tons (of 
2240 lbs.). 


Location of Factory. 


Tons (of 
2240 lbs.). 


Alvarado, Cal 


3244 
6000 
1596 
3125 
4424 
5392 
550 
300 


Rome.N. Y 

Crockett, Cal 


^580 

1340 
450 

2253 

891 

32.471 


Watsonville, Cal 


Grand Island, Neb 

Norfolk, Neb 


Le Grande, Ore 

Ogden, Utah 

Bing-hamton, N. Y 

Bay City, Mich 

St. Louis Park, Minn.. 
Total... 


Lehi, Utah 


Chino, Cal. .... 

Eddy, N. M 


Los Alamitos, Cal 



SUGAR IMPORTS FOR THE YEAR ENDING 
JUNE 30, 1898. (U. S. Depart.ment of Agriculture.) 



Countries from which imported. 



Cuba 

Germany 

Dutch East Indies.. 

Hawaii 

British West Indies. 

Brazil 

British Guiana 

Santa Dominoro . . . 
Philippine Islands... 

Porto Rico 

Belgium 

Egypt 

United Kingdom ... 

Austria-Hungary 

Netherlands 

France . . 

China 

Dutch Guiana 

British Africa 

Danish West Indies. 

Hongkong 

Canada , 

Other countries 



Quantity, 
Lbs. 



440. 
17s. 
621, 
499' 
231, 
139. 
I39. 
94, 
29. 



225,111 
275,440 
731,462 
776,895 
401,746 
426,285 
145,529 
336,444 
489,600 
452,421 
366,370 

354,144 
,106,706 

■ 767 
659,827 
17,781 
161,664 
636,341 
081,142 
832,991 
183,246 
717.532 
753.407 



2,788 



Total 2,689,920,851 



Value. 



$9,828,607 

3,520,796 

11,250,181 

16,660,412 

4,552,454 

2,317,990 

3,045,666 

2,030,239 

381,279 

1,913.742 

31,909 

1,230,071 

504,714 

67,831 

957,908 

480 

176,751 

585,326 

131,469 

312,446 

107,295 

32,589 

832,594 



$60,472,749 



The average price per pound of " Standard A " sugar in 
the New York market in 1898 was 4.84 cents. The average 
consumption of sugar of all grades per capita of population 
in the United States was 61. i lbs. 



392 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



POULTRY AND EGG PRODUCT IN THE 
UNITED STATES, 

According to the Census of 1880 and 1890. 



Poultry on hand June i. Number. 

Barnyard fowl (chickens) 

Geese, ducks, turkeys, etc 

Egf4^s produced (dozens) 



1879-1880. 



102,265,653 

23,234,687 

456,875,080 



1889-1890. 



258,472,155 

26,816,545 

817,211,146 



At 12 cents a dozen, a very moderate estimate, the annual value of the 
egg product on the farm rose from $55,000,000 in 1879 to $98,000,000 in 
1889, an increase of 79 per cent. There was an increase of 153 per cent in 
the number of barnyard fowl during- the decade considered, and of other 
fowl (geese, ducks, turkeys, etc.) an increase of 15 per cent. 

IMPORTANCE OF APIARIAN INDUSTRY IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

Apiarian societies in the United States no 

Apiarian journals ... 8 

Steam factories for the manufacture of beehives 

and apiarian implements 15 

Persons engaged in the culture of bees (esti- 
mated) 300,000 

Honey and wax produced, at wholesale rates 

(eleventh census) $7,000,000 

Estimate of the present annual value of apiarian 

products $20,000,000 

PRODUCTION OP HONEY AND BEESWAX IN THE 
UNITED STATES ACCORDING TO CENSUS RE- 
TURNS OF 1869, 1879, AND 1889. 



Honey, lbs.. . 
Beeswax, lbs. 



14,702,815 
631,129 



25,741,485 
1,105,556 



63,894,186 
1,166,543 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



393 



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394 



GEN^ERAL TOPICS. 



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396 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



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398 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF BUTTER AND CHEESE, 

1870-98. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 





Butter. 


Cheese. 


Year. 












Pounds. 


Value. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


1870 


2,019,288 


$592,229 


57,296,327 


$8,881,934 


1871 


3,965.043 


853,096 


63,698,867 


8,752,990 


1872 


7,746,261 


1,498,812 


66,204,025 


7,752,918 


1873 


4,518.844 


952,919 


80,366,540 


10,498,010 


1874 


4.367,983 


1,092,381 


90,611,077 


11,898,995 


1875 


6,360,827 


1,506,996 


101,010,853 


13,659,603 


1876 


4,644,894 


1,109,496 


97,676,264 


12,270,083 


'In 


21,527,242 


4.424.616 


107,364,666 


12,700,627 


1878 


21,837,117 


3,931,822 


123,783,736 


14,103,529 


1879 


38,248,016 


5,421.205 


141,654,474 


12,579,968 


1880 


39,236,658 


6,690,687 


1 127,553,907 


12,171,720 


1881 


31,560,500 


6,256,024 


1 147,995,614 


16,380,248 


1882 


14,794,305 


2,864,570 


127,989,782 


14,058,975 


'11^ 


12,348,641 


2,290,665 


1 99,220,467 


11,134,526 


1884 


20,627,374 


3,750.771 


112,869,575 


11,663,713 


1885 


21,683,148 


3,643,646 


111,992,990 


io,444,4^V 


1886 


18,953,990 


2,958,457 


91,877,235 


7,662,145 


1887 


i2,53i,'7i 


1,983,698 


81,255,994 


7,594,633 


1888 


10,455,651 


1.884,908 


88,008,458 


8,736,304 


,889 


15,504.978 


2,568,765 


84.999,828 


7,889,67 c 


1890 


29,748,042 


4,187,489 


95,376,053 


8,591,0-'-^ 


1891 


15,187,114 


2,197,106 


82,133,876 


7,405,3:6 


1892 


15,047,246 


2,445,878 


82,100,221 


7,676,6^7 


1893 


8,920,107 


1,672,690 


81,350,923 


7,624,6.) J 


1894 


11,812,092 


2,077,608 


73,852,134 


7,180,33: 


^In 


5,598,812 


915,533 


60,448,421 


5,497,539 


1896 


19.373,913 


2,937,203 


36,777,291 


3.091,014 


'In 


31,345,224 


4,493,364 


50,944,617 


4,636,063 


1898 


25,690,025 


3,864.765 


53,167.280 


4.559,3-v 



EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS FROM CANADA, 

1868-95. (Statistical Year-book for 1895.) 





Butter. 


Cheese. 


Year. 












Quantity. 


Value. 


Quantity. 


Value. 




Pounds. 




Pounds. 




1868 


10,649,733 


$1,698,042 


6,141,570 


$620,513 


1880 


18,535,362 


3,058,069 


40,368,678 


3,893,366 


1881 


17,649,491 


3.573,034 


49,255,523 


5,510,443 


1882 


15,161,839 


2,936,150 


50,807,049 


5,500,868 


'11^ 


8,106,447 


1,705,817 


58,041,387 


6,451,870 


1884 


8.075,537 


7,612,481 


69,755,423 


7.251,989 


1885 


7,3:;o,788 


1,430,905 


79,655,367 


8,265.240 


1886 


4,668,741 


832,355 


78,112,927 


6,754,626 


1887 


5,485-509 


979,126 


73,604,448 


7,108,978 


1888 


4,413,381 


798,673 


84,173,267 


8,928,242 


1889 


1,780,765 


331,958 


88,534,887 


8,915.684 


1890 


1.951,585 


340,131 


94,260,187 


9,372,212 


1891 


3,768.101 


602,175 


106.202,140 


9,508.800 


1892 


5,736.696 


1.056,058 


118.270,052 


11,652,4(2 


1893 


7,036,013 


1,296,814 


133,946.365 


13,407,470 


1894 


5,534.621 


1,095,588 


154,977,480 


15,488.191 


1895 


•A, 6:^0.258 


697,476 


146.004. '^50 


14.253,002 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



399 



THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED 

STATES. (U. S. Dki-akt.ment of Agriculture.) 





Tons 
(of 2000 lbs.). 


Value 
(wholesale). 


Commercial fertilizers sold in 1896, 

in 23 Eastern and Central States 

in rest of United States 


1,624,063 
270,854 


$32,301,582 
5,387,287 


Total for the United States 


1,894,917 


$37,688,869 

(retail) 
11,449,069 
18,759,^39 
3,067,515 
4,952,on 
241,86' 


Census returns, 1890, value of fertilizers pur- 
chased: 
North Atlantic Division 


South Atlantic " ... .... 




North Central " 




South Central " 




Western " 








Total for the United States. 




$38,469,598 







IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF FERTILIZERS IN 
1896. (U. S. Treasury Department.) 



Imports. 


Exports. 


Tons. Value. 


Value 
per Ton. 


Tons. 


Value. 


Value 
per Ton. 


375.?33-93 


$7,376,615 


$19.04 


514,143 


$4,400,593 


$8.56 



IMPORTS OF FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZER 
MATERIALS, 1896. 



Articles. 



Ammonia, sulfate of 

Apatite 

Ashes, wood and lye of, and beet-root ashes 

Blood, dried 

Bone-dust or animal carbon, and bone-ash, 

fit only for fertilizing' purposes 

Bones, crude, burned, calcined, ground or 

steamed 

Cotton-seed meal and cake 

Guano .. 

Kieserite, cyanite, and kainit 

Lime 

Oil-cake 

Phosphates, crude or native 

Potash, muriate of 

Potash, sulfate of 

Soda, nitrate of, or cubic nitrate 

All substances, not otherwise specified 

Total 



Tons. 



12,270.70 
434.00 



2,983.00 



Value. 



$480,971 

3,030 

67,394 

1,014* 



325-61 

5,072.29 

67,192.91! 

21,403 02 

8,911.50 

20,562.29 

43,438.35 

7,423-67 

145,456.64 

40,259 .951 460,160 
375.733-03|$7-376.6t5 



37-992 

154.610 

3-170 

52.697 

320,763 

76,302 

52,867 

153,370 

',372,743 

269,810 

3,870,734 



Value 
per Ton. 



$39.20 
6.o3 



9-74 
10.30 

4-77 

3-57 

5-93 

7.46 

3t6o 

36.34 

26.61 

_J^i^43_ 

$19 04 



* In 1895. 



400 GENERAL TOPICS. 



VI. DIRECTORY. 



DIRECTORY OF OFFICIAL AGRICULiTURAIj 
INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
Washington, D. C. 

Secretary of Agriculture — Hon. James Wilson.* 
Assistant Secretary of Agriculture — Joseph H. 
Brigham. 

Scientific Bureaus and Divisions. 

Weather Bureau — Willis L. Moore, Chief. 

Bureau of Animal Industry — D. E. Salmon, Chief, 

Dairy Division — Henry E. Alvord, Chief. 

Division of Statistics — John Hyde, Statistician. 

Section of Foreign Markets — Frank H. Hitchcock, 
Chief 

Office of Experiment Stations— A. C. True, Director. 

Division of Entomology — L. O. Howard, Entomologist. 

Division of Chemistry— Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist. 

Division of Botany — Frederick V. Coville, Botanist. 

Division of Forestry — Gifford Pinchot, Forester. 

Division of Biological Survey — C. Hart Merriam, 
Biologist. 

Division of Pomology — Gustavus B. Brackett, Pomol- 
ogist. 

Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology — 
B. T. Galloway, Pathologist. 

Division of Agrostology — F. Lamson-Scribner, Agros- 
tologist. 

Division of Soils— Milton Whitney, Chief. 

Office of Irrigation Inquiry — Chas. W. Irish, Chief. 

* Term expires March 4, igoi. 



DIRECTORY, 401 

Office of Public Road Inquiries — Roy Stone, Director. 

Division of Gardens and Grounds — William Saunders. 
Horticulturist and Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds, 

Division of Publications — Geo. Wm. Hill, Chief. 

Division of Accounts and Disbursements — Frank L. 
Evans, Chief, 

Division of Seeds — Robert J. Whittleton, Chief. 

Library — W. P. Cutter, Librarian. 

Canada. 

Ministers of Agriculture — 

Dominion Minister of Agriculture, Hon. Sidney Fisher, 

Ottawa. 
Hon. John Dryden, Toronto, Prov. of Ontario. 
Hon. Louis Beaubien, Quebec, Prov. of Quebec. 
Hon. B. W. Chipraan, Halifax, Prov. of Nova Scotia, 
Hon. Julius L. Inches, Fredericton, Prov. of New 

Brunswick. 
Hon. J. H. Turner, Victoria, Prov. of British Columbia. 
Hon. Thomas Greenway, Winnipeg, Prov. of Manitoba. 



402 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



\ i 





X 

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slz;-^ 03 u 'C -^ ID -n < CCA1-" > 

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DIRECTORY, 



403 



bo 






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30h 















c ^ 



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'->..^ c c_^ aa £?„^ 
ii.i: rtu:-t5 g S beg 



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U < <; C/5 C/3 1-5 



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b£. 



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rt rt q 



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:=; bjo 

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rt'o 



555 



ir. ■!-> ■>-' 






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'o'S'S'oa'o o"© bcolc b£u S'oii'o o 



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404 



OEKERAL TOPICS. 



STATISTICS OF AGUICUIiTLRAL- SCHOOLS AND 
COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1898. 

(U. S. Depaktment of Agriculture.) 



State. 



V ti 6 b£Q- 



^^3 






Q3 "O G3 



Alabama CAuburn) 

Alabama (Normal) 

Arizona 

Arkansas (Fayetteville) 

Arkansas (Pine Bluff) 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware (Newark) 

Delaware (Dover) 

Florida (Lake City) 

Florida (Tallahassee) 

Georgia (Athens) 

Georgia (College).. 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky (Lexington) . . . . 

Kentucky (Frankfort) 

Louisiana (Baton Rouge).. 

Louisiana (New Orleans).. 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts (Amherst).. 

Massachusetts (Boston) 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi (Agricultural 
College) 

Mississippi (Westside) 

Missouri (Columbia) 

Missouri (Rolla) 

Missouri (Jefferson City).. 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina (West Ra- 
leigh) 

North Carolina (Greens 
boro) 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. 

Rhode Island 



1872 



870 



872 

892 
868 
874 
809 
874 
880 
892 



3*^ o 



341 
458 
156 
478 
319 
2391 

344 

"3 

lOI 

46 
200 
218 
no 
160 

248 

1582 

750 
636 
803 
430 
147 

250 
445 
324 
105 
142 

,198 
475 

2890 

296 
248 



201 
523 
328 
143 
296 
215 
'835 



237 
[150 

174 
336 
347 
183 



105 
167 



238 
99 
113 
4 
4 
7 
16 

19 



229 
248 



h 




7. gc/J 


p 


^ = 


48 


500 


33 


429 


4 


10 


13 


216 


TO 


100 


247 


3424 


13 


"5 


14 


163 


10 


339 


2 


2 


12 


49 




24 


II 


264 


7 


II 


8 


17 


90 


IT83 


72 


910 


88 


978 


69 


802 


iq 


191 


12 


67 


12 




16 


T16 


43 


530 


13 






508 


193 


i960 


29 


7b^ 


185 


2540 


15 


230 


I 


lOI 


42 


.... 


5 


88 


20 


126 


4 


7 


44 


241 


19 


85 


19 


192 


41 


353 


8 


21 


260 


4755 


... 


87 


6 


13 


71 


876 


7 


16 


29 


291 


44 


414 


10 


53 



DIRECTORY. 



405 



STATISTICS OP AGRICUIiTUKAIi SCHOOLS AND 
COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1898.— 

Contimied. 



State. 



South Carolina (Clem 
son College) 

South Carolina (Or 
angeburg) 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas (College Station) 

Texas (Prairie View) . 

Utah 

Vermont : 

Virginia (Rlacksburg)., 

Virginia (Hampton)... 

Washington 

West Virginia (Mor 
gantown) 

West Virginia (Farm). 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Total. 



6 



w 3 



rt O 



3(U 



S i: :« 



5^o 
400 

608 

337 
190 
447 
575 
333 
1 1 20 
380 

644 

1767 
185 

31,658 






176 



29 
100 
265 

26 



276 
3 



2328 



62 



332 



52 
3174 
263 
987 

23 

536 

800 

3556 

57 



406 GENERAL TOPICS. 



lilST OF AMERICAN VETERINARY COLLEGES. 

National Veterinary College, Washington, D. C: 
Dr. D. E. Salmon, Pres. ; Dr. Chas. F. Dawson, Sec. 

Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia, Pa.: John Marshall, M.D., Dean. 

American Veterinary College, University of the 
State of New York, New York City: Dr. A. Liautard, 
i\I.D., Principal and Dean. 

New York College of Veterinary Surgeons, New 
York City: Dr. H. D. Gill, Dean. 

School of Veterinary Medicine, Harvard University, 
Boston, Mass.: Chas. P. Lyman, F.R.C.V.S., Dean. 

Veterinary College, Cornell University, Ithaca, 
N. Y.: Prof. J. Lazv, Dean. 

School of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State Univer- 
sity, Columbus, O.: W. P. Lazenby, Secretary. 

Chicago Veterinary College. Chicago, 111.: Johs. 
Hughes, M.R.C.V.S., Principal. 

McKiLLip Veterinary College, Chicago, 111.: M. H. 
McKillip, M.D., V.S., President. 

Veterinary Department, Iowa State Agricultural 
College, Ames, Iowa: M. Stalker, V.S., Dean. 

Kansas City Veterinary College, Kansas City, Mo.: 
Dr. S. Stewart, Dean. 

California Veterinary College, San Francisco, Cal. : 
Dr. Thomas Bonhill, Dean. 

Ontario Veterinary College, Toronto, Canada : Dr. 
A. Smith, F.R.C.V.S., Principal. 

McGiLL University, Department of Comparative Medi- 
cine: D, McEachren, F.R.C.V.S., Montreal, P. Q., Canada. 



DIRECTORY. 



407 



DAIRY SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES AND 
CANADA, 1899. 



State or Province. 



Alabama 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New Hampshire 

New York 

North Carolina. 
North Dakota. . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania... 
South Dakota... 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

Wisconsin 

Ontario 

guebec 
ew Brunswick. 

Nova Scotia 

Winnipeg 



Tuskegee 

Fort Collins 

Storrs 

Experiment 

Moscow 

Urbana 

Lafayette 

Ames 

Manhattan 

Orono 

College Park 

Amherst 

Agricultural College 

St. Anthony Park 

Agricultural College 

Columbia 

Lincoln 

Durham 

Ithaca 

West Raleigh 

Fargo 

Columbus 

Corvallis 

State College 

Brookings 

College Station 

Logan 

Burlington 

Blacksburg 

Pullman 

Madison 

Kingston 

Guelph 

Strathroy 

St. Hyacinthe 

Sussex 

Nappan 

Manitoba 



Name of Director, Super- 
intendent, or Professor 
in Charge. 



Prof. Geo. W. Carver 
Prof. W. W. Cooke 
Prof. C. L. Beach 
Prof. H. J. Wing 
Prof. H. T. French 
Prof. E. Davenport 
Prof. W. C. Latta 
Prof. C. F. Curtis 
Prof. Thos. E. Will 
Prof. G. M. Gowell 
Prof. H.J. Patterson 
Prof, Wm. P. Brooks 
Prof. C. D. Smith 
Prof. T. L. Haecker 
Prof. W. L. Hutchinson 
Prof. H. J. Waters 
Prof. T. L. Lyon 
Pres. C. S. Murkland 
Prof. H. H. Wing 
Prof. Frank E. Emery 
Prof. E. E. Kaufman 
Prof. John W. Decker 
Prof. F. L. Kent 
Prof. H. Hayward 
Prof E. A. Burnett 
Prof. J. H. Council 
Prof. F. B. Linfield 
Prof. J. L, Hills 
Prof. C. L. Goodrich 
Prof. W. J. SpiUman 
Prof. E. H. Farrington 
J. W. Hart. Supt. 
Prof. H. H. Dean 
Archibald Smith, Supt. 
E. Castel, Principal 
J. E. Hopkins 
W. S. Blair, Supt. 
C. A. Murray, Supt. 



408 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



LIST OF AGRICLL.TURAL, EXPERIMENT STA- 
TIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1899. 









Year 


State. 


Location. j 


Director. 


Estab- 
lished. 


Alabama (College).... 
Alabama (Canebrake) 


Auburn 


P. H. Mell 


1883 


Uniontown 


W. Collins* 


1886 




Tucson 


R. H. Forbes 


1889 


Arkansas 


Fayetteville 


R. L. Bennett 


1887 


California 


Berkeley 
Fort Collins 


E.W. Hilgard 
L. G. Carpenter 


1873 


Colorado 


T879 


Connecticut (State).. 


New Haven 


S. W. Johnson 


1877 


Connecticut (Storrs).. 


Storrs 


W. O. Atwater 


1887 


Delaware 


Newark 


A. T. Neale 


1888 




Lake City 
Experiment 


W. F. Yocum 
R. J. Redding 


1S88 


Georgia 


1888 


Idaho 


Moscow 
Urbana 


J. P. Blanton 
E. Davenport 


1892 


Illinois 


1888 


Indiana 


Lafayette 


C. S. Plumb 


1888 




Ames 


C. F. Curtiss 


1888 


Kansas 


Manhattan 


J. T. WiUard 


1888 


Kentucky 


Lexington 


M. A. Scovell 


1885 


Louisiana (Sugar) 


New Orleans 


W. C. Stubbs 


188s 


Louisiana (State) 


Baton Rouge 


W. C. Stubbs 


1886 


Louisiana (North) 


Calhoun 


W. C. Stubbs 


1887 




Orono 


Chas. D. Woods 


1885 


Maryland 


College Park 


H. J. Patterson 


1888 


Massachusetts 


Amherst 


H, H. Goodell 


1882 


Michigan 


Agriculiural College 


C. D. Smith 


1888 


Minnesota 


St. Anthony Park 
Agricultural College 


W. M. Liggett 
W. L. Hutchinson 


1888 


Mississippi 

Missouri 


1888 


Columbia 


H.J. Waters 


1883 


Montana 


Bozeman 

Lincoln 

Reno 


S. M. Emery 
T. L. Lyon 
J. E. Stubbs 




Nebraska . . . 


1884 


Nevada. . 


1888 


New Hampshire.... 


Durham 


C. S, Murkland 


1886 


New Jersey (State). . . 


New Brunswick 


E. B. Voorhees 


1880 




Mesilla Park 
Geneva 


C. T. Jordan 
W. H. Jordan 


1889 


New York (State).... 


1882 


New York (Cornell).. 


Ithaca 


I. P. Roberts 


1879 


North Carolina 


Raleigh 


Geo. T. Winston 


1877 


North Dakota 


hargo 


J. H. Worst 


1890 


Qj^io 


Woosier 
Stillwater 
Corvallis 
State College 


C. E. Thorne 
John Fields 
T. M. Gatch 
H. P. Armsby 


1882 


OUahnma 


1890 




1888 


Pennsylvania 


1887 


Rhode Island 


Kingston 


A. A. Brigham 


1888 


South Carolina 


Clemson College 


H. S. Hartzog 


1 883 


South Dakota 


Brookings 


J. H. Shepard 


1887 




Knoxville 
College Station 
Logan 
Burlington 


R. L. Watts + 
J. H. Connell 
Luther Foster 
J. L. Hills 


1882 


Texas 


1888 


Utah 


1890 




1886 


Virginia . . 


Blacksburg 


J. M. McBryde 


1888 


Washington... 


Pullman 


E. A. Bryan 


1891 


West Virginia 


Morganiown 


J H. Stewart 


1888 




Madison 
Laramie 


W. A. Henry 
E. E. Smiley 


1883 


Wyoming.. 


1891 



* Assistant director in charge. 



t Secretary. 



DIRECTORY. 



409 



Canadian Experiment Stations. 

Central Experimental Farm — Ottawa, Ont.; Wm. Saun- 
ders, Director; J. H. 
Grisdale, Agriculturist. 
Experimental Farm — Nappan, N. S.; R. Robertson, Super' 
intendent. 
'* " Brandon, Manitoba; S. A. Bedford, 

Superintendent. 
Indian Head, N. W. T. ; Angus 

Mac Kay, Superintejident. 
Agassiz, B. C. ; Thos. A. Sharpe, 
Superintendent. 

Experiment Station — Ontario Agricultural College, 

Guelph, Ont. ; James Mills, 
President; C. A. Zavitz, Ex- 
perimentalist. 

SUPERINTENDENTS OF FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 



State. 


Name. 


Address. 


Alabama 

Delaware 


J. F. Culver 

G. Harold Powell 

O. Clute 

A. B. HoUister 
W. C. Latta 

B. Walker McKeen 
W. L. Amoss 

C. D. Smith 
O. C. Gregg 
Levi Chubbuck 
F. W. Taylor 
Franklin Dye 

F. E. Dawley 

D. Reid Parker 
W. W. Miller 
John Hamilton 
O. C. Brown 
George McKerrow 

G. Creelman 

H. H. McKellar. 


Montgomery, Ala. 
Newark, Del. 


Florida .. 


Lake City, Fla. 
Springfield, 111. 
Lafayette, Ind. 
Augusta, Me. 
College Park, Md. 
Agricultural Coll., Mich. 
Lynd, Minn. 
St. Louis, Mo 
Lincoln, Neb. 
Trenton, N. J. 
FayetteviUe, N. Y. 
West Raleigh, N. C. 
Columbus, O. 
Harrisburg, Pa. 
Charleston, W. Va. 
Madison, Wis. 

Guelph, Ont. 


Indiana 


Maryland 

Michigan .... 




Missouri 

Nebraska 

New Jersey ... .. . 


New York .... 


North Carolina 

Ohio 


West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Ontario, Can 







410 GENERAL TOPICS. 



VI. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITER- 
ATURE. 

MORE IMPORTANT WORKS ON DAIRYING. 

American. 

Arnold, American Dairying. Rochester, N. Y., 1876. 
(Out of print.) 

Biggie, Biggie Cow Book. Philadelphia, 1898. 144 pp. 

Decker, Cheddar Cheese Making. Second edition. 
Madison, Wis., 1895. 151 pp. $1.00. 

Farrington-Woll, Testing Milk and its Products. Sixth 
edition. Madison, Wis., 1S99. $1.00. 

Flint, Milch Cows and Dairy Farming. Boston, 1888. 

Georgeson, Dairy Industry of Denmark. Washington, 
D. C, 1893. 133 pp. 

Grotenfelt-Woll, Modern Dairy Practice. Second edition, 
New York, 1896. 285 pp. $2.00. 

Gurler, American Dairying. Chicago, 1894. $1.00. 

Harris, Cheese and Butter Maker's Handbook. Glas- 
gow, 1885. 207 pp. 

Jones, Mrs. E. M., Dairying for Profit. Chicago, 1893. 
63 pp. 50 cents. 

Monrad, ABC in Cheese Making. Winnetka, 111. Second 
edition. 68 pp. 50 cents. 

Monrad, ABC in Butter Making. Winnetka, 111., 1899. 
118 pp. 50 cents. 

Monrad, Pasteurization and Milk Preservation. Win- 
netka, 111. 78 pp. 50 cents. 

Monrad, Cheese Making in Switzerland. Winnetka, 111. 
68 pp. 50 cents. 

Newell, Handbook on Cheese Making. Grand Rapids, 
Mich., 1889. 59 pp. 50 cents. 



AGRICULTURAL AXD DAIRY LITERATUiH:. 411 

Russell, Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology. Fourth edition. 
Madison, Wis., 1899. 190 pp. $1.00. 

Snyder, Chemistry of Dairying. Easton, Pa. 156 pp. 

Schoenman, Butter-fat and Dividend Calculator. Madi- 
son, Wis., 1S95. 66 pp. I2.00. 

Stewart, Dairyman's Manual. N. Y., 1888. 475 pp. 

Willard, Practical Dairy Husbandry. N. Y., 1S77. 
546 pp. 

Willard, Practical Butter Book. N. Y., 1883. 171 pp. 

Wing, Milk and its Products. N. Y., 1897. 2S0 pp. 

English. 

Fleischmann, Book of the Dairy. London, 1896. los. 6d. 

Sheldon, Dairy Farming. London. 570 pp., 4to. 

Sheldon, The Farm and the Dairy. London, 1889. 154 
pp. 28. 6d. 

Sheldon, British Dairying. 2d ed., 1896. 170 pp. 

Aikman, Milk, its Nature and Composition. London, 
1895. 180 pp. 

Long, The Dairy Farm. London, 1889. 115 pp. 

Long and Morton, The Dairy. London. 146 pp. 

Oliver, Milk, Cheese, and Butter. London, 1894. 362 pp. 

Freudenreich, Dairy Bacteriology. London, 1895. 115 pp. 

Other European. 

Boggild, Malkeriebruget i Danmark. Second edition. 
Copenhagen, 1S96. 627 pp. 

Martiny, Die Milch, I-IL Danzig, 1871. 438 and 366 pp. 

Martiny, Kirne und Girbe. Berlin, 1895. 404 pp., 4to. 

Martiny, Milchwirtschaftl. Taschenbuch. Published 
annually. Bremen. 

Fleischmann, Das Molkereiwesen. Braunschweig, 1S76, 
1074 pp. 

Fleischmann, Lehrbuch d. Milchwirtschaft. Second 
edition. Bremen, 1898. 483 pp. 

Kirchner, Handbuch d. Milchwirtschaft. Bremen, 1891, 
618 pp. 



412 GENERAL TOPICS. 

V. Klenze, Handbuchd. Kaserei-Technik. Bremen, 1884. 
643 pp. 

Eugling, Praktische Kaserei. Bremen, 1892. 260 pp. 

Weigmann, Die Methoden der Milch - conservirung. 
Bremen, 1893. 72 pp. 

Duclaux, Le Lait. Paris, 1887. 336 pp. 

Duclaux, Principes de Laiterie. Paris. 370 pp. 

Leze, Les Industries de Lait. Paris, 1891. 647 pp. 

Pouriau, La Laiterie, 5th ed. Paris, 1895. 8g8 pp. 

A LIST OF SIXTY AGRICULiTURALi AND 
HORTICUL.TURAL1 BOOKS. 

Fream, Elements of Agriculture. 4th ed. London, 1892. 
486 pp. 

Webb, Advanced Agriculture. London, 1S94. 672 pp. 

Mills and Shaw, Public School Agriculture. Toronto, 
1890. 250 pp. 

James-Craig, Practical Agriculture. N. Y., 1899. 203 pp. 

Wallace, Agriculture. Philadelphia, 1895. 352 pp. 

Bailey, Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1898. 300 pp. 

Winslow, Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1891. 152 pp. 

Storer, Agriculture in some of its Relations with Chem- 
istry. 7th ed. N. Y., 1897. 3 vols. 

Voorhees, First Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1896. 
212 pp. 

Roberts, The Fertility of the Land. N. Y., 1897. 

415 pp. 

Voorhees, Fertilizers. N. Y., 1899. 335 pp. 

Warington, Chemistry of the Farm. 7th ed. London. 
160 pp. 

Johnson, How Crops Feed. N. Y. 375 pp. 

Johnson, How Crops Grow. N. Y., 1890. 416 pp. 

Morrow and Hunt, Soils and Crops of the Farm. Chi- 
cago, 1892. 303 pp. 

Plumb, Indian Corn Culture. Chicago, 1895. 243 pp. 

Woll, A Book on Silage. 2d ed. Chicago, 1900. 

Allen, American Cattle. N. Y., 1881. 528 pp. 

Wallace, Farm Live Stock. Edinburgh, 1889. 333 pp. 



AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 413 

McDonald, Cattle, Sheep, and Deer. 5th ed. London, 
1872. 745 + 91 PP- 

Warfield, Cattle Breeding. Chicago, i8go. 390 pp. 

Day, The Horse, How to Breed and Rear Him. 2d ed. 
London, 1890. 453 pp. 

Pease, Horse Breeding for Farmers. London, 1S94. 

133 PP- 

Curtis, Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. College Sta- 
tion, Texas, 1888. 269 pp. 

Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding. N. Y., 1887. 525 pp. 

Henry, Feeds and Feeding. Madison, Wis., 1898. 657 pp. 

Wolff, Farm Foods, transl. by Cousins. London, 1895. 

365 pp. 

Stewart, Feeding Animals. 5th ed. Lake View, N. Y., 
1890. 558 pp. 

Stewart, The Domestic Sheep. Chicago, 1898. 372 pp. 

Randall, Practical Shepherd. N. Y., 1863. 452 pp. 

Coburn, Swine Husbandry. N. Y., 1888. 311 pp. 

Harris, On the Pig. N. Y., 1889. 318 pp. 

Collingwood, The Business Hen. N. Y., 1892. 150 pp. 

L. Wright, Book of Poultry. London, 1891. 591 pp. 

Cook, Bee-keeper's Guide. Lansing, Mich., 1884. 4th 
ed. 337 pp. 

Law, Farmer's Veterinary Adviser. Ithaca, N. Y., 1880. 
426 pp. 

Hayes, Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners. 5th ed. 
London, 1897. 733 pp. 

King, The Soil. N. Y., 1895. 303 pp. 

Waring, Drainage for Profit and Health. N. Y. 252 pp. 

Miles, Land Drainage. N. Y., 1893. 199 pp. 

Poore, Rural Hygiene. London, 1893. 321 pp. 

Wilcox, Irrigation Farming. N. Y., 1895. 311 pp. 

Goff, Principles of Plant Culture. 2d ed. Madison, 
Wis., 1898. 276 pp. 

Crozier and Henderson, How the Farm Pays. N. Y., 
1884. 400 pp. 

Bailey, The Horticulturist's Rule Book. 3d ed. N. Y., 
1896. 302 pp. 

Bailey, The Nursery Book. 2d ed. N. Y., 1892. 304 pp. 



414 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Barry, Fruit Garden. N. Y., 1889. 516 pp. 

Landreth, Market Gardening and Farm Notes. N. Y., 
1893. 215 pp. 

Card, Bush-Fruits. New York, 1899. 549 pp. 

Fuller, Grape Culturist. N. Y. 281 pp. 

Henderson, Practical Floriculture. N. Y., 1891. 325 pp. 

Weed, Insects and Insecticides. Hanover, N. H., 1891. 
281 pp. 

Lodeman, Spraying of Plants. N. Y., 1896. 399 pp. 

Fuller, Practical Forestry. N. Y., 1891. 299 pp. 

Jarchow, Forest Planting. N. Y , 1893, 237 pp. 

Clarke, Modern Farm Buildings. London, 1895. 147 pp. 

Barn Plans and Outbuildings. Orange Judd Co., N. Y., 
1893. 235 pp. 

Sanders, Practical Hints on Barn Building. Chicago, 
1893. 284 pp. 

Adams, The Modern Farmer. San Francisco, 1899. 
662 pp. 

Bennett, Farm Law. Portland, Me., 1880. 120 pp. 

AMERICAN DAIRY PAPERS. 

American Cheese-Maker. Grand Rapids, Mich. Monthly, 
50 cents. 

American Dairyman. New York City. Weekly, $1.50. 

Bulletin American Devon Cattle Club. Wheeling, W. Va. 
Monthly, 50 cents. 

Chicago Dairy Produce. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.50. 

Creamery Gazette. Des Moines, Iowa. Monthly, $1,00. 

Creamery Journal. Waterloo, la. Monthly, |i.oo. 

Creamery Patron. Decorah, Iowa. 

Dairy and Creamery. Chicago, 111. Semi-monthly, 50 
cents. 

Dairy World. Chicago, 111. Monthly, $1.00. 

Elgin Dairy Report. Elgin,* 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Jersey Bulletin. Indianapolis, Ind. Weekly, $2.00. 

Hoard's Dairyman. Fort Atkinson, Wis. Weekly, $1.00. 

Holstein-Friesian Register. Brattleboro, Vt. Semi- 
monthly, $1.50. 



AGRICULTUJIAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 415 

The Milk News. Chicago, 111. Monthly, $i.oo. 

The Milk Reporter. Deckertown, N. Y. Monthly, 
$i.oo. 

New York Produce Review and American Creamery. 
New York City. Weekly, $r.oo. 

The Practical Dairyman. Indianapolis, Ind. Monthly, 
50 cents. 

St. Paul Dairy Reporter. St. Paul, Minn. Weekly, 
$1.00. 

The Western Creamery. San Francisco, Cal. Monthly, 
$1.00. 

MAIN FOREIGN DAIRY PAPERS. 

The Dairy. 144 Fleet Street, London, England, Monthly, 3s. 

The Dairyman. 17 New Castle Street, Farringdon St., Lon- 
don, England. 

The Dairy World and British Dairy Farmer. 310 Strand. 
London, England. Monthly, 3s. 

NordiskMejeri-Tidning. Stockholm, Sweden, Weekly, 5 kr. 

Malkeritidende. Odense, Denmark. Weekly. 

Milch-Zeitung. Bremen, Germany. Weekly, 8 mk. 

Deutsche Molkerei-Zeitung, Berlin, Germany. Weekly 
8 mk. 

Molkerei-Zeitung. Hildesneim, Germany. Weekly, 6 mk. 

L'Industrie Laitiere- 33 Rue J. J. Rousseau, Paris, France 
Weekiy, 20 fr. 

La Laiterie. iS Rue des Martyrs, Paris. Bi-weekly, 13. ft 

Schweizerische Molkerei Zeitung, Zurich. Weekly, 6.60 fi 

Die Milch Industrie. Berne. Switzerland. 



416 GENERAL TOPICS. 

MAIN AMERICxVN AGRICULTURAL. AND HORTI- 
CULTURAL PAPERS. 

Agricultural Epitomist. Indianapolis, Ind. Monthly, 50 
cents. 

American Agriculturist, New York City. Weekly, $1.00. 

American Bee Journal. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

American Cultivator. Boston, Mass. Weekly, $2.50. 

American Farmer, Chicago, 111. Semi monthly, 50 cents. 

American Feriilizer. Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, $2.00. 

American Gardening. New York City. Semi-monthly, 
$1.00. 

American Grange Bulletin. Cincinnati, O. Weekly, $i.co. 

American Poultry Journal. Chicago, 11'. Monthly, $1.00. 

American Poultry Yard. Hartford, Conn. Weekly, $1.50. 

American Sheep Breeder and Wool Grower. Chicago, 111. 
Monthly, $1.00. 

American Svvine Herd. Chicago, 111. Monthly, 50 cents. 

American Veterinary Review. New York City, Monthly, 
$3.00 

Acker- und Gartenbau Zeitung. Chicago, 111. Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Breeders' Gazette. Chicago, 111, Weekly, $2.00. 

Breeders' Journal. Beecher, 111. Monthly, $1.00. 

California Cultivator and Poultry Keeper. Los Angeles, Cal. 
Monthly, $1.00. 

Colman's Rural World. St, Louis, Mo. Weekly, $1.00, 

Colorado Farmer. Denver, Colo. Weekly, $2.00, 

Connecticut Farmer. Hartford, Conn. Weekly, $1.50. 

The Cultivator and Country Gentleman. Albany, N. Y 
Weekly, $2,50. 

The Cultivator. Omaha, Neb, Semi-monthly, 50 cents. 

The Dakota Farmer, Aberdeen, S. D. Semi-monthly, 

$1.00. 

Drover's Journal. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.50. 

Farm and Fireside. Springfield, O. Semi-monthly, 50 
cents. 

Farm and Home. Chicago, and Springfield, Mass. Semi- 
monthly, 50 cents. 

The Farmer. St. Paul, Minn. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. 



AGRICULTURAL AN^D DAIRY LITERATURE. 417 
The Farmers' Advocate. London, Ont. Semi-monthly, 

$1.00. 

Farmer's Call. Quincy, 111. Weekly, 50 cents. 

Farmers' Home. Dayton, O. Weekly, 50 cents. 

The Farmers' Magazine. Springfield, 111. Monthly, $2.00. 

Farmers' Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly. $1.25. 

The Farmer's Voice. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Farm, Field, and Fireside. Chicago, 111. Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Farm, Field, and Stockman. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1 00. 

Farm News. Springfield, Ohio. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Farm, Stock, and Home. Minneapolis, Minn. Semi-month- 
ly, 50 cents. 

Farming. Toronto, Canada. Weekly, $1.00. 

The Farm Journal. Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Florida Agriculturist. De Land, Fla. Weekly, $2.00. 

Garden and Forest. New York City. Weekly, $4.00. 

Gai'dening. Chicago, 111. Semi-monthly, $2.00. 

Horse Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $2.00. 

Indiana Farmer. Indianapolis, Ind. Weekly, $1.00. 

Industrial American. Lexington, Ky. Semi-monthly, $i.Ov, 

Iowa Farmer. Cedar Rapids, la. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Iowa Homestead. Des Moines, la. Weekly, |i 00. 

Irrigation Age, Chicago, 111. Monthly, $2.00. 

Journal of Agriculture, St. Louis, Mo, Weekly, $1.00. 

Journal of Agriculture Illustrated. Montreal, Canada. 
Monthly, $1.00. 

Kansas Farmer. Topeka, Kan. Weekly, $1.00. 

Kentucky Stock Farm. Lexington. Ky. Weekly, $2.00. 

Live Stock Indicator. Kansas City, Mo. Weekly, $1.00. 

Live Stock and Farm Journal. Toronto, Canada. MonthI> , 
$1.00, 

Live Stock Report. Chicago, 111. Weekly. 

Live Stock Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $2.00. 

Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer. New Orleans,, 
La. Weekly, $3.00. 

Maryland Farmer. Baltimore, Md. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Meehan's Monthly. Germantown, Pa. Monthly, $2.00 

Michigan Farmer. Detroit, Mich. Weekly, $1.00 



418 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Midland Poultry Journal. Kansas City, Mo. Monthly, 50 
cents . 

Mirror and Farmer. Manchester, N. H. Weekly, $1.00. 

Montana Stockman and Farmer. Helena, Mont. Weekly, 
$2.00. 

National Stockman and Farmer. Pittsburgh, Pa. Weekly, 
$150. 

Nebraska Farmer. Lincoln, Neb. Weekly, $1.25. 

Nebraska Homestead. Omaha, Neb. Weekly, $2.00. 

New England Farmer. Boston, Mass. Weekly, $2.00. 

New England Homestead. Springfield, Mass. Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Northwestern Agriculturist. Minneapolis, Minn. Semi- 
monthly, 50 cents. 

Ohio Farmer. Cleveland, Ohio. Weekly, $1.00. 

Ohio Poultry Journal. Dayton, Ohio. Monthly, $1.00. 

Orange Country Farmer. Port Jervis, N. Y. Weekly, $1.00 

Orange Judd Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Pacific Rural Press. San Francisco, Cal. Weekly, $3.00, 

Poultry Monthly. Albany, N. Y. Monthly, $1.25. 

Poultry World. Hartford, Conn. Monthly, $1.25. 

Practical Farmer. Philadelphia, Pa. Weekly, f i.oo. 

Prairie Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $].oo. 

Ranch and Range. Seattle, Wash. Weekly, $1.00. 

Rural Canadian. Toronto, Canada. Monthly, $1.00. 

Rural Californian, Los Angeles, Cal. Monthly, $1.50. 

Rural Life. Waterloo, la. Weekly, $1.00. 

Rural New Yorker. New York City. Weekly, $1.00. 

Skordemannen (Swedish). Minneapolis, Minn. Semi- 
monthly, 75 cents. 

Southern Cultivator. Atlanta, Ga. Monthly, $1.00. 

Southern Live Stock Journal. Starkville, Miss. Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Southern Planter. Richmond, Va. Monthly, $1.00. 

Swine-Breeders* Journal. Indianapolis, Ind. Semi-monthly, 
li.oo. 

Texas Farm and Ranch. Dallas, Tex. Weekly, $1.00. 



AGRlCtJLTtJRAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 419 

Texas Stockman. San Antonio, Tex. Weekly, $2.00. 
Turf, Field, and Farm. New York City. Weekly, ^5. 00. 
Wallace's Farmer. Des Moines, la. Weekly, $1.00. 
Western Agriculturist and Live Stock Journal. Quincy, 111. 
Semi-monthly, $1.00. 

Western Resources. Lincoln, Neb. Weekly, $2.00. 
Western Rural. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00, 
Western Swine Herd. Geneseo, 111. Monthly, 50 cents. 
Williamette Farmer. Salem, Ore. Weekly, $2.00. 
Wisconsin Agriculturist. Racine, Wis. Weekly, 50 cents. 
Wisconsin Farmer. Madison, Wis. Weekly, $r.oo. 
Wool Markets and Sheep. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 



INDEX. 



Aberdeen Angus cattle, 22 

Accidents, what to do in case of, 339 

Acidity of milk or cream, determination of, by alkaline tablet test, 270 

Manns' test, 272 
Acidity of skim-milk, milk, and cream, relation of fat content to, 275^ 
Acre-foot of water, 149 
Adulteration of milk, 236 
Age of farm animals, determination of, 26 
Agricultural and dairy literature, 410 

horticultural books, list of, 4'i2 
papers, main American, 416 
imports and exports, 1897-98, 393 
Agricultural associations, constitutions of, 321 
books, 412 

clubs, constitutions and by-laws of, 321 

educational institutions in the United States and Canada, 402 
engineering, 139 

population, number, and classification, 373 
products, average farm price of, 1890-189S, 382 
schools and colleges in the United States, statistics of, 404 
Alkaline tablet test of acidity in milk or cream, 270 
American trotter, the, 19 
agricultural colleges, 402 

experiment stations, 408, 409 
dairy schools, 407 
veterinary colleges, 406 
Apiarian industry in the United States, importance of, 392 
Arbor Day, dates of, in different states and territories, 117 
Ash of cows' milk and colostrum, composition of, 223 
Atavism, 40 
Ayrshire cattle, 194 
Babcock milk test, the, 224 

application of, 226 
points to be watched, 225 
Beef cattle, 22 

proportion of, to live weight of cattle, 178 
Beet sugar production in the United States, 1898-99, 391 
Berkshire pigs, 25 
Board of Health (N. Y.) lactometer, 226, 227 

431 



422 II^DEX. 

Boiler, care of, 252 

power, 25s 
Bordeaux mixture, 99 

Boyd, John, Boyd's process of cream ripening, 267 
Brown-Swiss cattle, 206 
Butter, 261 

American premium, analyses of, 274 

by deep, cold setting and Cooley system, 269 
shallow-pan creaming, 269 

cheese and condensed-milk factories in the United States, 389, 390 

composition of, 273 

conversion factor for calculating yield of, 275 

domestic exports of, 1870-1898, 398 

English scale of points for judging, 279 

foreign samples of, composition of, 274 

fresh, composition of, 274 

from separator cream, 270 

foreign, analyses of, 274 

formula for calculating yield of, 275 

loss of, through inefficient skimming, 251 

makers, score in judging proficiency of, 279 

making, 261 

distribution of milk ingredients in, 278 
use of pure cultures in, 263 

milk, composition of, 239 

milk required for making i lb. of, 277, 278 

records, official, 212 

salted, composition of, 274 

score for judging, 278 

sour cream, composition of, 2^^ 

sweet cream, composition of, 273 

unsalted, composition of, 274 

yield from cream of different richness, 275 

milk of different richness, 276, 308 

yield of, corresponding to yields of fat, per day and per week, 2750 
By-laws and rules for co-operative cheese factories, 316 

creamery associations, 313 
Caldwell, Prof. W. H., Guernsey cattle, 186 
California weir table, 151. 
Canada, area and population, 367 

dairy schools, 407 

experiment stations, 409 

exports of dairy products, 1868-1895, 398 

meteorological data, 372 

Ministers of Agriculture, 401 

number of farm animals, 1891, 387 

production of various crops, 1891, 381 

veterinary colleges, 406 



INDEX. 423 

Carcass, a steer's, 176 

of farm animals, constitvients of, 181 
Cattle, determination of age of, 26 

proportion of beef to live weight, 178 
the various parts of, 180 
Cattle foods, classification, 9 

comparative value, 16, 17 
Centrifugal skim-milk, per cent fat in, 246 
Cereals, prevention of smut in, 107 

prices per bushel and per ton, 18 
Cheddar cheese, formulas for finding yield of, 293 

losses in curing, 295 

manufacture of, 281 
Cheese, butter, and condensed-milk factories in the United States 

in 1890, 389, 390 
Cheese, composition of, 292 

curing-rooms, determination of humidity in, 288 

domestic exports of, 1870-1898, 398 

English scale for judging, 291 

factories, co-operative, by-laws and rules for, 316 
management, 300 
whey to be allowed patrons of, 299 

loss in weight during curing, 295 

manufacture of, 281, 283 
Cheese making, distribution of ingredients, 293 

fertilizing ingredients, 293 
use of pure cultures, 263, 266 

score for judging, 291 

synopsis of manufacture of principal varieties, 298 

varieties and analyses, 292 

yield from 100 lbs. of milk, 294, 296 
Chester White pigs, 25 
Cheviot sheep, 24 

Chinch-bugs, fighting the, by means of kerosene emulsion, 108 
Churning, 269 

.Cisterns, capacity of, 154, 155 
Clark, VV. G., M.D.C., Common diseases of farm animals, 41 

Veterinary remedies and doses, 51 
Cleveland Bay horses, 20 
Clover, winter-killed, replacing, 68 
Clovers, notes on adaptability and uses, 91 
Clydesdale horses, 20 
Coins, foreign, value of, 365 
Colostrum, composition of, 223 

ash, composition of, 223 
Components of cows' milk, calculation of, 222 

Composite samples of milk, directions for taking and preserving, 300 
Composition and weight of ordinary crops per acre, t6 



434 INDEX. 



Composition of ash of cow's milk and colostrum, 22^ 
butter, 2yz, 274 
colostrum, 223 

commercial fertilizing materials, 132 
cows' milk, variations in, 221 
cream, 239 
dairy products, 239 
dairy salt, 280 

different parts of same tnilkings, 221 
feeding stuffs, i 
live animals, 180 
tnilk of different breeds, 213, 214 
morning and evening milk, 221 
morning, noon, and evening milk, 221 
soils, 124 

sweet- and sotir-cream butter, 273 
various kinds of milk, 220 
Concentrated feeding stuffs, weight of, 16 
Condensed-milk, composition, 239 

butter, and cheese factories in the United States in 1890, 389, 390 
Constitution and by-laws of agricultural clubs, 321 
road leagues, 328 
village-improvement societies, 326 
Contagious diseases, rules for treatment in case of, 59 
Conversion factor for calculating yield of butter, 275 

of U. S. weights and measures to metric, and vice versa, 351, 353 

foreign money to dollars and cents, 366 
table for calculating fertilizing ingredients, 138 
pounds of milk into quarts, 238 
quarts of milk into pounds, 238 
Cooling milk or cream, water or ice required, 260 
Corn, cost per acre of raising, 382 
Corn on the cob, measurement of, in cribs, 317 
Cost of irrigating canals and ditches, 152 

raising wheat, corn, and cotton, per acre, 382 
Cotswold sheep, 24 
Cotton, average cost per acre, 382 
Cows, buying and selling by test? of the milk, 2x5 
care of, 216, 312 
diseases of, 45 

premium, yields of milk and fat at state fairs, 211 
Craig, Prof. John A., Characteristics of breeds of live stock, 19 
Cream, application of viscogen in, 258 
calculation of per cent fat in, 241 
composition of, 239 

formula for finding fat content of, 244 
gatherers, instructions to, 318 
jce requii ^d for cooling, 260 



INDEX. 425 



Cream, preservation of, by heat, 256 

quantity of water or ice required for cooling, 260 
ripening, Boyd's process of, 267 
separators, capacity of, 248 

economy of, 247 

handling and care of, 245 

list of, 2<42 

power required for skimming 1000 lbs. milk, 247" 
use of alkaline tablet test with, 270 
yield from milk of different richness, 240 
Creameries and cheese factories, directions for making dividends in. 

307 
suggestions to patrons of, 311 
Creamery associations, co-operative, by-laws and rules for, 313 

management of, 300 
Crops, farm, enemies of, 99 

fertilizing materials in, 128, 129 
soiling, 67, 68 

various, yields per acre, 75 

weight and average composition of, per acre, 66 
Curd test, the Wisconsin, 284 
Curing of cheese, losses in, 295 

rooms, humidity in, 288 
Cuts of meat, diagrams of, 176, 177 
Dairy breeds, composition of milk from, 213, 214 
results of tests of, 209, 210, 212 
yield of milk of, English standards for, 213 
cattle, origin and characteristics of breeds of, 183 
cows, 183 

, methods of judging the value of, 214, 215 
rations for, 12, 14 

standards for annual yield of milk and fat, 213 
yield of milk and fat from, 208 
• farms, regulations for the government of, 59 
papers, American, 414 
main foreign, 415 
products, American, analyses of, 220 
composition of, 239 
exports of, from Canada, 1868-1895, 398 

the United States, 1870-1898, 398 
fertilizing ingredients in, 223 
legal standards for, 234 
produced on farms, 1890, 388 
rules, fifty, 216 
salt, analyses, 280 

schools in the United States and Canada, 407 
statistics for the United States, 1890, 385 
Pairies and dairy farms, regulations for the government of, 59 



426 IKDEX. 

Dairying, 183 

more important works on, 410 
Dates of killing frost, 369 

Days between dates within two years, numbe^r of, 346 
Decker, John W., How American cheese is made, 281 
Detection of bad milk, 284 
Devon cattle, 202 

Dewey, L. H., Table of noxious weeds, 94 
Dietaries, 168, 175 

daily, calculation of, 168 
Dietary standards, 168, 175 
Digestion coefficients, 2, 6 
Dimensions, interior, of farm buildings, 163 
Directory of official agricultural institutions, 400 
Diseases of farm animals, 41 
Disinfectants, list of, 58 
Disinfection of stables, rules for, 59 
Distance table for planting vegetables, -jz 
tree-planting, 74, 116 
Dividends, directions for making, in creameries and cheese factories, 

307 
Dorset sheep, 24 

Doses, veterinary, graduation of, 51 
Draining land, reasons for, 139 

Drains, of various dimensions, earth removed for, 143 
Duroc-Jersey swine, 25 
Dutch belted cattle, 204 
Duty of water, 148 
Economy, pecuniary, of food, 172 
Engine management, 255 
Engineering, agricultural, 139 
English milking trials, results of, 212 
Essex pigs, 25 

Exhaustion of fertilizers, 134 

Exhibition purposes, preservation of soft fruits for, 81 
Exports, agricultural, in the U. S., 1897-98, 393 
Fair tests of dairy cows, 211, 214 
Farm animals, body temperature of, 28 

characteristics of, 19 

common diseases of, 41 

constituents of carcass, i8r 

determination of age of, 2(> 

estimated number on farms and ranches, 1896, 383 

food requirements of, 16 

heat in, duration and frequency, 28 

in Canada in 1891, 387 

in the United States in 1870-1895, 387 

live, composition of, iSo 



INDEX. 427 

Farm animals, standard rations for, lo 
buildings, interior dimensions of, 163 
crops, enemies of, 99 

products, fertilizing constituents of, 126 
cost of hauling, 160 
yield of, per acre, 71 
Farmyard manure, amounts required to replace ingredients ab- 
stracted by various crops, 130 
Farmers, forestry for, 109 
Farmers' institutes, superintendents of, 409 
Farming population of the United States, 372 
Farming, approximate losses of fertilizing materials in different 

systems, 123 
Farms in the United States, statistics concerning, 373, 375 
Farrington, Prof. E. H.^ The alkaline tablet test for acidity in milk 

or cream, 270 
Fat content of skim-milk, mil"k, and cream, relation of, to acidity, 

27sb 
Fat, relation of, to casein and other solids of milk, 222 
Fattening animals, comparative results obtained with, 179 
Feeding and general care of poultry, 31 

standards for farm animals, 10 
Feeding stuffs, chart showing manurial value of, 125 
composition of, i, 3 
concentrated, classification, 9 

weight of, 16 
fertilizing constituents, 126 
valuation of, 18 
Feed rations, calculation of components of, 12 
Fermentation tests, 284, 286 

Fernow, Prof. B. E., Forestry for farmers, 109 
Fertilizer industry of the United States, 399 

laws, states having, 136 
Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products, 126 
materials, commercial, composition of, 132 
conversion table for calculation of, 138 
equivalent quantities of, 135 
in dairy products, 223 
different crops, 129 

raw materials and chemicals, trade value of, 137 
losses of, in different systems of farming, 123 
voided by animals, 131 
withdrawn by various crops, 128, 129 
Fertilizers, exhaustion of, 134 
imports and exports, 399 
valuation of, 136 
Field crops, 62 
Fish, N. S., Brown-Swiss cattle. 206 



428 IN^DEX. 

Flag signals adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureau, explanation of» 

330 
Food, economy, 167 

fuel value, 166 
Foods, human, 165 

Food materials, human, composition of, 169, 170 
nutrients furnished for 25 cents in, 173 
pecuniary economy of, 172 
Foreign coins, value of, 365 
Forestry, 109 

fire laws in the United States, 118 
for farmers, 109 
Formalin treatment for the prevention of smut of cereal grains and 

of potato scab, 105, 107 
Formulas for calculation of total solids in milk, 230 
yield of butter, 275 
converting degrees Centigrade or Reaumur to Fahren- 
heit, and Z'ke versa, 357 
finding adulteration of milk, 236 
fat content of cream, 244 

separator skim-milk, 252 
quantity of water or ice required for cooling 

milk or cream, 260 
yield of Cheddar cheese, 293 
Frederiksen, J. D., Handling and care of cream separators, 245 
French coach horses, 20 

Frost, killing, dates of average and actual, 369 
Fruit trees, distances apart, 74 
longevity, 74 

time required to bear fruit, 74 
Fruits, soft, preservation of, for exhibition purposes, 81 
Fuel value of food materials, 166 

woods, 114 
Fungous diseases of plants, treatments for, 99 
Galloway cattle, 22 
Gerber fermentation test, the, 286 
Germination standards of seeds, 89 
Gestation calendar, 29 
Goff, Prof. E. S., Treatments for injurious insects and fungoy. 

diseases of plants, 99 
Government land measures, 358 
Grass seeds, amounts to sow per acre, 89 

number, weight, and cost of, 89 
Grasses, notes on adaptability and uses of, 91 
Guernsey cattle, 186 
Gurler, H. B., Butter-making, 261 
Hackney horses, 20 
Hampshire sheep, 23 



INDEX. 429 



Hand separators, list of, 242 

Hauling farm produce, cost of, 160 

Hawks and owls, beneficial and harmful, 332 

Hay, reckoning amount and value of, 359 

Hay, seed mixtures for, 63 

Herd milk, ranges in composition of, 237 

Heredity, 36 

Hereford cattle, 22 

Hicks, Gilbert H., Seed-testing for the farmer, 84 

Highland sheep, 25 

Hills, number of, on an acre of land, 70, 71 

Hog cholera, suppression of, 55 

Holidays, legal, ^37 

Holstein-Friesian cattle, 190 

Honey and beeswax in the United States, production of, 392 

Horn-fly, remedies for, 57 

Horse, determination of age, 26 

labor done by, 61 
Horse-power, 256 

required for separating 1000 lbs. milk, 247 
Horses, diseases of, 41 

heavy, 20 

light, 19 
Horticulture, 72 
Horticultural books, 412 

products, best temperatures for preserving, 81 
Hot-water treatment for smut, 105, 107 
Hoxie, S., Holstein-Friesian cattle, 190 
Human foods, 165 

composition, 165, 170 
Humidity in cheese-curing rooms, 288 

relative, in curing-rooms, table showing, 289 
Ice required for cooling milk or cream, 260 
Imports, agricultural, in the U. S., 1897-98, 393 
Inches reduced to decimals of a foot, 352 
Injurious insects, treatments for, 99 
Interest tables, 344 
Irrigated land, value of, 150 

Irrigating canals and ditches, cost per mile, 152 
Irrigation, 148 

efficiency of windmills for, 145 

pipes, cost of, 152 
Jersey cattle, 183 
Kephir, composition of, 239 
Kerosene emulsion, 100, 108 

Kilograms converted into pounds Avoird., 352 
Koumiss, composition of, 2^9 
Lactometer, 22^ 



430 IKDEX. 

Land, areas of appropriated, vacant, and reserved, in the United 
States, 373 

measures, government, 358 
Legal holidays, 337 
Legal standards for dairy products, 234 

weights of grain, seeds, etc., 362 
Leicester sheep, 24 
Lincoln sheep, 24 
Live animals, composition of, 182 

mineral matters in 100 parts, 182 
Live stock, characteristic breeds of, 19 
London purple, 100 
Loss of butter from inefficient skimming, 251 

cheese in curing, 295 
Main pipe, rule for obtaining size of, 141 
Manns' test, directions for use of, 272 
Manures, amount and quality produced by stock, 130 

and fertilizers, 122 

composition, amount, and value of, from different farm ani- 
mals, 130, 131 

valuation of, 136 
Manurial value of feeding stufifs, chart showing, 125 
Maple syrup, specific gravity, sugar content, and boiling-point, 77 

sugar obtained from, 78 
Marshall rennet test, 281 
Meat, diagrams of cuts, 176, 177 
Merino sheep, 23 

Mineral matters in 100 parts of live animals, 182 
Milch cows, diseases of, 45 
Milk, adulteration, 236 

ash, composition, 223 

average composition, with variations, 221 

bad, detection of, 284 

calculations of components, 222 
total solids, 230 

care of, 218 

composition of, of different breeds, 213, 214 
various kinds, 220 

fertilizing ingredients in, 223 

gatherers, instructions to, 318 

ingredients, distribution of, in butter-making, 278 
cheese-making, 293 

morning and evening, composition of, 221 

morning, noon, and evening, composition of, 221 

payment of, at creameries and cheese factories, 302 

power required for skimming 1000 lbs., 247 

preservation of, by heat, 256, 259 

price of, per 100 lbs., 305 



IITDEX. 431 



Milk, quantity of water or ice required for cooling, 260 

records, official, 212 

relation of fat to casein and other solids of, 222 

relative cheese value of, 296 
Milk required for making i lb. of butter, 277, 278 

skimming and watering of, 2.2)6, 237 

solids, calculation of, 230 

calculation of sp. gr. of, 22,1 

specific gravity of, temperature correction tables for, 228 

standards, 234 

table for converting pounds of, into quarts, and vice versa, 238 
quarts of, into pounds, 238 
finding average per cent of fat in, 309 

testing, a chapter on, 224 

use of alkaline tablet test with, 270 

variation in composition, 237 

watering of, 236 

yield and composition of, of different breeds, 213 
Milking trials, English, results of, 212 

rules for, 217 

utensils, care of, 219 
Milkings, composition of different parts of same, 221 
Miner's inch, 149 
Money, conversion table, 366 

foreign, value of, 365 

order, fees, 348 
Monrad rennet test, the, 281 
Mutton, diagrams of cuts, 177 

sheep, 23 
Nails, cut, table of, 164 
New York Board of Health lactometer, comparison with Quevenne 

lactometer, 227 
Nitrogen voided by animals, 131 

Noer, J., M.D., What to do in case of accidents, 339 
Noxious weeds, table of, 94 
Number of plants for an acre of ground, 70, 71 

trees on an acre, 113 
Nutrients, 165 

furnished for 25 cents in food materials, 173 
Nutritive ratio, 2 
Oats-smut, prevention of, 105 
Official milk and butter records, 213 
Orchard-spraying outfit, 104 
Ounces reduced to decimals of a pound, 352 
Oxford cheep, 24 

Pasteurization of milk c.nd cream, 256 
Pastures, permanent, seed mixtures for, 62, 
Patents, how issued, 333 



432 INDEX. 

Patrons, rules for, 318 

Payment of milk at creameries and cheese factories, 302 

Percheron horses, 21 

Perishable goods, temperatures injuring, 79 

Pickrell, J. H., Shorthorns as dairy cows, 196 

Pipes, carrying capacity of, 151 

cost of, for irrigation, 152 

straight, flow of water through, 151 
Plant diseases, treatments for, 99 

number of, for an acre of ground, 70, 71 
Plants, temperatures injurious to, 80 
Plowing, performance of team in, 161 
Poisoning, antidotes in cases of, 341 
Poland China pigs, 25 

Population, agricultural, number and classification, 373 
Pork, diagram of cuts of, 177 
Postage, domestic, 347 

foreign, 347 
Potatoes, relation of sp. gr., dry matter, and starch content of, 76 

prevention of scab, 107 
Poultry and egg product in the United States, 1880 and 1890, 392 

breeds of, 36 

feeding and care of, 31 
Pounds converted into kilograms, 352 
Power required for discharge of water, 148 
to raise water from deep wells, 152 

separators, list of, 243 
Precipitation, normal, in Canada, yjz 

the United States, 371 
Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 256 

soft fruits for exhibition purposes, 81 
Prevention of oats-smut, 105 

smuts of cereal grains and scab of potatoes, 107 
Pumps, capacity of, 153 

Pure cultures, use of, in butter and cheese making, 263 
Purity standards of seeds, 86 
Quevenne lactometer, 226 
Rainfall, 144 
Rations for dairy cows, practical, 12, 14 

standard, 10 
Reciprocals of numbers, 354 

Record, highest, for yield of fat by dairy cows, 211 
Records, milk and butter, official, 212 
Red-polled cattle, 199 
Rennet test, 250 

Richards, H. B., Dutch belted cattle, 204 

Richter, Prof. A. W., Steam boiler and engine management, 252 
Road leagues, constitution of, 294 



INDEX. 453 



Road-making, 155 
Roads, drainage, 155 

Roads, different kinds of, force required to draw a load on, 157 
good, importance of, 157 
gravel for, 156 
repairs, 156 

stone required for maintenance of, 143 
weight required to move vehicles on, 158 
Ropes, strength of, 361 

Russell, Prof. H. L., Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 256 
Salt, American dairy, analyses of, 280 
Second-foot of water, 149 
Seed mixtures for grass and clover, 64 

hay and permanent pastures, 63, 65 
quantity required per acre, 62 
testing for the farmer, 84 
vegetable, quantity required per acre, 73 
Seeds, 84 

germination standards, 89 

grass, number, weight, cost, and amount to sow per acre, 89 
purity standards, 86 
vitality, 93 
Separator skim-milk, conditions determining fat content of, 252 
formula for obtaining fat c^ontent of, 252 
per cent fat in, 246 
Separators, list of, 242 
Shaw, Prof. Thos., Heredity, 36 
Sheep, diseases of, 49 

determination of age of, 27 
fine-wooled, 23 
mutton, 23 

proportions of the various parts of, 180 
Shire horses, 21 
Shorthorn cattle, 22, 196 
Shropshire sheep, 23 

Silos, cylindrical, area of feeding surface of, for different sized 
herds, 70 
capacity of, 69 
Sisson, L. P., Devon cattle, 202 
Skim-milk, composition of, 239 
per cent fat in, 246 

relation of fat content, and speed of bowl, quantity of milk 
separated, and temperature of the milk, 252 
Skimming of milk, detection of, 236 

inefficient, loss of butter caused by, 251 
Slope, rise per 100 feet, 143 
Smith, J. McLain, Red-polled cattle, 199 
Smuts of cereal grains, prevention of, 107 



434 INDEX. 

Smuts, oats, prevention of, 105 

Soiling crops adapted to Northern New England states, dj 

time of planting and feeding, 68 
Soils, chemical analyses of, 124 
Solids of milk, calculation of, 230 

sp. gr. of, 22,1 
tables for obtaining, from specific gravity and per cent of fat, 232 
Southdown sheep, 22, 
Specific gravity of butter milk, 239 
cream, 239 
maple syrup, ^7 
milk, 221 
milk solids, 233 
potatoes, 76 
skim-milk, 239 
various substances, 363 
woods, 14 
temperature correction tables for, of milk, 228 
Spraying calendar, loi 

outfit for orchards, 104 
Standard rations for farm animals, 10, 12 
Standards for dairy products, 234 

of purity of seeds, 86 
Starch equivalent, 2 i 

Statistical tables, 367 

Steam boiler and engine management, 252 
Steers, live and dressed weights of, 178 

proportions of the various parts of, 180 
Sterilization of milk and cream, 256, 259 
Sub-humid region, 150 
Suffolk horses, 21 

sheep, 24 
Sugar in the United States, production and consumption, 390, 391 

imports, 1897-98, 391 
Superintendents of farmers' institutes, 409 
Swine, 25 
' diseases of, 50 

live weight and gains made, 179 
plague, suppression of, 55 
proportions of the various parts of, 180 
Tainted milk, causes of, 284 
Tamworth pigs, 25 
Tanks, capacity of, 154 

Temperature-correction tables for specific gravity of milk, 228 
Temperature of the air, normal mean, in Canada, 2>7^ 

the United States, 368 
farm animals, normal, 28 
Temperatures injuring perishable goods, 71 



INDEX. 435 

Temperatures injurious to plants, 80 

for preserving horticultural products, 81 
Testing milk and other dairy products by Babcock's method, 224 
Tests of dairy breeds at American experiment stations, 209 
Tests of dairy breeds at British Dairy Farmers' Assoc, 212 

World's Columbian Exposition, 210 
Thermometer scales, comparisons of, 355 
Thoroughbred horse, the, 19 
Tile-draining land, reasons for, 139 

pipe of main drain, size required, 141 
Tiles, number required per acre, table showing, 140, 141 

of acres drained by, of different diameters and per 
cent grade, 142 
size required, 140, 141 
Tires, wide, effect of, 162 
Tractive force required for carriages, 157 

of horses at different speeds, 158 
effect of inclination on, 159 
surface on, 160 
Trade values of fertilizing ingredients, 137 
Tree-planting, distance table, 116 
Trees, number on an acre, 113 

Uuited States, agricultural experiment stations in, 408 
imports and exports, 1897-1898, 393 
schools and colleges, 404 
wages, 1893-1895, 376 
apiarian industry, importance of, 392 
area and population, 367 

areas of appropriated, vacant, and reserved land in, 373 
cereal products, principal, 1850-1890, 381 
comparison of leading industries, 372 

cost per acre of raising wheat, corn, and cotton, 1893, 382 
crops, principal, 381 
dairy schools, 407 

statistics for 1890, 385 
Department of Agriculture, organization, 400 
educational institutions, 402 
farming population, nz 
fertilizer industry, 399 

imports and exports, 1896, 399 
number and value of farm animals, 1870-1895, 387 
of farms in, and their value, 373 
pure-bred cattle, 1898, 387 
poultry and egg product, 1880 and 1890, 392 
precipitation, normal, 371 

product and value of principal crops, 1898, 381 
production of honey and beeswax, 392 
soils, analyses of, 124 



436 INDEX. 

United States, statistics of butter, cheese, and condensed-milk fac- 
tories, 389, 390 
farms, 375 

principal crops, 1895, 377 
sugar imports, 1897, 390 
United States, sugar production and consumption, 1897, 390, 391 
temperature of the air, normal mean, 368 
value of principal farm products, 376 
wages, agricultural, 1893-1895, 376 
wool products, 390 
Valuation of feeding stuffs, 18 

manures and fertilizers, 136 
Value of foreign coins, 365 

1005 — -100 

Value of for sp. gr. of milk from 1.019 to 1.0399 275^ 

Veal, diagram of cuts, 177 
Vegetable seed required per acre, 72 
Vegetables, usual distances for planting, yz 
Veterinary colleges, American, list of, 406 

remedies and doses, 51 
Victoria pigs, 25 

Village-improvement societies, constitution of, 326 
Viscogen, 258 
Vitality of seeds, 93 
Wages, agricultural, in the United States, 1893-1895, 376 

by the week and the day, table of, 345 
Wagon tires, wide, effect of, 162 
Water, acre-foot of, 149 

carrying capacity of pipes, 151 

duty of, 148 

flow through straight pipes, 151 

miner's inch, 149 

power required for discharge oT, 148 

to raise, fro;i. deep wells, 152 

required for cooling milk jr cream, quantity, 260 

right, 148 

second-foot, 149 
Watering of milk, 36 
Weather Bureau, the, explanation of flag signals adopted by, 330 

services, state, list of headquarters of, 332 
Weeds, 94 

noxious, table of, 94 
Weights and measures, 349 

conversion table, 351, 353 
customary system of, 349 
metric system of, 350 
Weights, legal, of grain, seeds, etc., 362 
Weir table, the California, 154 



INDEX. 437 

Wheat, cost per acre, -^f raising, 382 

Wheeler, Prof. Wm. P., Feeding and general care of poultry, 31 

Whey, composition of, 239 

to be allowed patrons, 299 
Whitewash, recipe for, 163 
W^ind, force and velocity of, 145 
Windmills, capacity, 146, 153 
Windmills, economy, 147 

square feet and acres irriga';:d by, 145 
Winslow, C. M., Ayrshires, 194 
Winter-killed clover, replacing, 68 
Wisconsin curd-test, 284 

Woods, fuel value and -jpecific gravity, 114 
Wool products of the United States, 1898, 390 
World's Columbian Fxposition, results of breed tests at, 210 
Yield of butter corresponding to yield of fat, per day and per week, 

275a 
Yield of butter, formula for calculating, 275 

Cheddar cheese, formula for calculating, 293 

cheese from 100 lbs. of milk, 294, 296 

fat, highest record, 211 

milk and fat by premium cows at state fairs, 211 
from dairy cows, 208 
of dairy breeds, 209, 210, 211, 212 
English standards for, 213 
Yields, average, per acre of various crops, 71, 75 
Yorkshire pigs, 25 



jAN 17 1900 












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